Proposing a conceptual model that accounts for the dynamics of willpower and impulses, the author invokes “resolution” and “suppression” as central means and attempts to provide a deeper understanding of basic behavioral conflicts by integrating elements from both psychology and behavioral economics. In this endeavor, the author lists some mechanisms (e.g., habit, visceral activation, and implementation intention) as part of an economically oriented approach that emphasizes a bargaining between SS (smaller, sooner) and LL (larger, later) outcomes. Although we agree on the importance of the described mechanisms and phenomena, we here argue that a better understanding of willpower requires to be firmly grounded in theories about the psychological underpinnings.

Such efforts have been made by dual process theories (Sherman, Gawronski, & Trope, Reference Sherman, Gawronski and Trope2014) in psychology that describe the interplay of different psychological mechanisms in the generation of judgment and behavior. Crucially, in such models, temptation and self-regulation are special constellations of processes that govern all sorts of cognition and behavior. One such attempt is the reflective-impulsive model (RIM; Deutsch & Strack, Reference Deutsch, Strack, Hagger, Cameron, Hamilton, Hankonen and Lintunen2020; Strack & Deutsch, Reference Strack and Deutsch2004). The RIM contributes to the current discussion as it (a) conceptualizes behavior to be generated by the interplay of two groups of psychological processes (i.e., systems of processes), and (b) explains many phenomena laid out in the target article as a function of this interplay.

The impulsive system (IS) influences behaviors through the activation of associative clusters that have previously been created by spatial or temporal coactivation. In addition, emotional experiences change the activation of emotion-specific or more general (i.e., approach/avoidance) associative clusters, thereby rendering compatible behaviors more likely. The IS is always active, operates effortlessly, and is thus the primary instance at which information is processed. The reflective system (RS), in contrast, is made up of a cluster of processes that operate on top of the IS. It functions by syllogistic principles and complements the operation of its impulsive counterpart by goal pursuit and strategic action plans. The RS is more resource dependent than the IS, such that some situations compromise the operation of the RS more than that of the IS.

Given that low control resources tend to interfere with the RS, tasks need to meet a certain threshold of intensity and attention to surpass the IS and enter the RS for further processing. Applying this to the resolve-suppression model reveals that whether a resolve process occurs is likely to be tied to individuals' perceived stakes associated with a given task, as well as potential extraneous factors (e.g., distractions) affecting the cognitive capacity available to the individual.

Although the two systems support one another if their behavioral implications are compatible, conflicts may arise if the RS generates action plans that are incompatible with the behavioral tendencies triggered by the IS (e.g., sight of food activates eating schema whereas the RS is executing a decision to stop eating). These are the conflicts described in the target paper. But instead of proposing mechanisms that are specific for this situation, the RIM invokes universal principles used to explain behavioral execution under normal circumstances.

One is the degree to which the RS lacks the resources to operate and counteract incompatible influences from the IS. This is the case if distractions, exhaustions, or sedating substances affect processing. In contrast, the IS is strengthened by strongly linked associative patterns and intense emotions. Importantly, the interaction between the two systems predicts that the mere negation (“Just say no!”) of an impulsive behavior may generate undesired effects by activating specific affirmative cues that may cause the opposite behavior to occur. As a consequence, the RIM implies that guiding behavior through activating desired options is more efficient than guiding it through negating or suppressing undesired options.

Moreover, the RIM touches upon another relevant aspect presented in the target article, namely, the time dimension in the conflict between action plans generated in the RS and behavioral tendencies elicited by the IS. Because the RS is independent from immediate perceptual input, it can assume a time perspective and bridge temporal gaps and thus increase the impact of future outcomes relative to immediate rewards. This becomes relevant when contextual changes require a modification of the long-term decision-making strategy. In this context, initial changes in choice patterns are likely to necessitate processing in the RS to enable a long-term sustainable habit through resolve processes as predicted in the resolve-suppression model. Although this seems promising, it presupposes that sufficient control resources are available in a given moment and context.

Most important, the RIM allows deriving predictions for self-regulatory situations (Hofmann, Friese, & Strack, Reference Hofmann, Friese and Strack2009) that are based on the dynamics of the interaction between the two systems. The innovative contribution of the RIM becomes particularly obvious when dealing with the impulsive determination of behavior and considering the extraneous and dispositional factors allocating the process preceding a behavior to one of these systems. This is relevant, when the behavioral tendencies predicted by these two models are not compatible, as is the case in the situations presented in the target article.

These parameters also afford interventions that may imply important improvements of people's health and well-being (Deutsch & Strack, Reference Deutsch, Strack, Hagger, Cameron, Hamilton, Hankonen and Lintunen2020). One example is the treatment of alcoholic patients for whom strengthening their resolutions to stay away from alcoholic beverages is not sufficient to effectively treat their addiction. Partly based on the implications of the RIM, patients' impulsive approach tendencies toward such drinks have been successfully retrained as part of clinical therapy (Wiers, Eberl, Rinck, Becker, & Lindenmeyer, Reference Wiers, Eberl, Rinck, Becker and Lindenmeyer2011).

In summary, we argue that a conceptual approach based on the regular interplay of reflective and impulsive mechanisms will provide an integrative and coherent framework of human behavior in which conflicts between opposing behavioral tendencies can be accounted for. Moreover, such an approach affords empirical tests and applied interventions that speak to its usefulness.