Agroforestry (AF) is considered to be a sustainable land use practice as it combines agricultural production with multiple beneficial effects such as carbon sequestration, enhanced nutrient cycling and increased biodiversity. Quantification of these beneficial effects in temperate arable fields is still limited, however, and most studies focus on one sole parameter (i.e., impact on crop productivity, soil quality, biodiversity, etc.). Combined effects are only rarely considered, resulting in a lack of integrated quantification. Here we assess the effect of rows of walnut trees (Juglans regia L.) on soil organic carbon (SOC), soil nutrient status, the presence of potentially beneficial ground-dwelling arthropods and on the yield and quality of neighboring arable crops. Significantly higher SOC and soil nutrient concentrations were found near the trees, which is assumed to be primarily a result of tree leaf litter input. Abundance of macro-detritivorous arthropods was increased in and near the tree rows, whereas only limited effects of tree presence were found on the presence of the predatory arthropod taxa under study. The yield of all crops under study was reduced as a result of tree presence, with the strongest reductions observed for grain maize and sugar beet near the trees (<10 m). In addition, alteration of crop quality was observed near tree rows with decreased dry matter concentration of grain samples and increased crude protein concentration of winter cereals.

Recent sociological analysis of the expansion of the biofuels industry internationally has noted the paradox between the purported global environmental benefits of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by replacing fossil fuels with biofuels, and the potential for distinctly negative environmental impacts experienced at local sites of biofuels production. The state, in both the USA and the EU, has played a prominent role in promoting the development and expansion of biofuels production through government mandates and incentives, but the state's role in governing the potentially (negative) economic, social or environmental impacts of biofuels production on local communities has been much more limited in scope. We review the environmental sociological literature to frame analysis of how the state is governing the benefits and burdens brought by the ethanol industry to rural communities in Kansas and Iowa. Drawing on data from community surveys, focus group and individual interviews and analysis of environmental violations, the paper examines the local impacts of biofuels production in three case-study communities. Findings suggest that local residents do not express many concerns about environmental impacts and that the state has played a modest role in governing the negative local environmental impacts. We argue that this lack of concern is related to the histories of these rural communities, which have long depended on resource extractive industries and currently are desperate for economic growth. We find that criticisms of negative environmental impacts are muted in relation to purported economic benefits and to other comparable industries. These community case studies illustrate some of the challenges, both at the practical and theoretical levels, of governing biofuels production.

The practice of composting mixed green wastes from community collection programs has been on the increase as a means to reduce organic debris to landfills. Recent reports of plant injury have appeared and were attributed to residues of the herbicide clopyralid in compost. Phytotoxicity issues with compost have been reported previously to result from other factors, including heavy metal content, soluble salts, organic acids and oxygen deprivation related to incomplete decomposition. The recent reports of plant injury due to clopyralid-contaminated compost were also associated with very heavy applications of compost, yet few of these reports included observations of herbicide symptomology. Since immature compost may contain sufficient degradation intermediates, soluble salts and other contaminants to cause phytotoxicity, particularly when applied at heavy rates, an effort must be made to distinguish confounding factors. Complete composting normally allows for the degradation of phytotoxic intermediates and synthetic compounds, such as herbicides, as well as allowing for leaching of salts. Absence of compost completeness standards within the compost industry leaves such factors to the guesswork of the end-user. Recommended compost use rates have established a relationship between compost maturity, application rate and use pattern, based on compost quality metrics. Greater attention to the use of high-quality compost, properly designated as to completeness of composting and applied at appropriate use rates, would minimize the potential for phytotoxic effects, irrespective of the contributing source.

Soil quality has been proposed as a prime indicator for characterizing and defining management factors contributing to soil degradation. In this study, biological (soil respiration, fluorescent Pseudomonas bacteria and entomopathogenic nematode populations), chemical (pH, inorganic N, and total C & N), and physical (bulk density and infiltration) indicators were used to determine soil quality. The specific research objective was to determine the capacity of this specific set of indicators to assess soil quality and determine its ability to detect short-term changes in soil conditions and processes. The assessment was comparative because of the lack of specific criteria or guidelines available in the literature for interpretation of most soil property indices measured. The following treatments were chosen from an ongoing farming systems study to achieve a preplanned set of comparisons that would make this type of assessment possible: (1) best management practices/conventional tillage (BMP/CT), (2) BMP/no-tillage (BMP/NT), (3) an organic system, and (4) a successional fallow system. Assessments were made multiple times between 1999 and 2000. Statistical differences between systems were found for all soil quality indicators except for entomopathogenic nematodes. Differences between systems varied across dates, a result that supports other research stating the need to consider the temporal variability of these indices for an unbiased overall soil quality assessment. Differences in total carbon and total nitrogen between systems were most evident in the 2000 sampling dates with BMP/NT showing greater contents on the last sampling date. The soil pH and inorganic N results did not suggest a possible difference in soil function status between any of the three agricultural systems studied. All three agricultural systems, BMP/NT, BMP/CT and organic, had similar pH values and overall low soil inorganic N levels. The non-agricultural successional system had a slightly more acidic soil condition than the three agricultural systems. Soil bulk density increased with time in the untilled BMP/NT and successional systems but the resulting values were not considered detrimental to either productivity or environmental quality. Infiltration was lower in the BMP/NT and successional systems than in the BMP/CT and organic systems. In conclusion, all soil quality indicators except for entomopathogenic nematodes proved to be sensitive to the detection of rapid changes in soil conditions that occur by the influence of soil management. The importance of using soil bulk density to express soil results on a volume basis, as the soil exists in the field before sampling, prevented an average interpretation error of 7–14% as compared to treatment comparisons on a soil weight basis only. This also demonstrates the need to carefully consider field sampling locations (row, between row, or wheel traffic areas) which dramatically influence soil density, physical characteristics, organic matter concentrations, and biological activity. Failure to consider these factors can invalidate even the most careful approaches to establishing baseline soil quality levels in the field as affected by various tillage and residue management practices and associated comparisons in time.

With the rapid growth of farmers’ markets, roadside stands and U-pick operations in the USA, direct food distribution to consumers has become more important for agricultural producers. However, numerous studies have revealed that there are barriers preventing further development of these markets. One of the most often cited barriers is lack of access for consumers. This raises the question: to what extent does accessibility affect consumers’ participation in this food marketing channel? Based on data from a public mail survey, a binary probit model was developed to test whether the ease of access to farmers' markets would affect consumers’ participation decisions. The model included other control variables such as spatial accessibility to other traditional food retail stores, consumer demographics and perceptions of locally produced foods. The results showed that each additional farmers' market within a 5 km radius of the household significantly increased the expected probability of participation by 3.67%, and the effect varied with urban and rural areas. The presence of grocery stores, convenience stores and specialty food stores were statistically insignificant. Also, some demographic characteristics such as age, household income and household size, along with attitudes toward local foods, were found to be significant predictors of consumers’ behavior. Finally, we provide a number of implications for improving market locations, targeting interested consumers and developing strategies to promote farmers' markets.

A survey was conducted in 2002 to measure the success of technology transfered to growers (i.e., changes in attitudes and behaviors) from a long-term, large-scale, integrated cropping systems experiment called the Ralston Project, near Ralston, Washington, USA. Non-irrigated, cereal and oilseed growers who participated in biennial field tours (1996–2000) were mailed a self-administered questionnaire, which asked about: (1) their interest, use and adoption of technology developed or demonstrated in the project; (2) their opinions about the project's collaborators, planning and design; and (3) their overall impressions of the project. One hundred and one eligible growers responded to the questionnaire, for a 55% overall response rate and a 62% completion rate. Survey results confirmed that the Ralston Project field tours were a successful means of technology transfer among participants. Seventy-seven percent of growers found one or more project technologies particularly useful to their own production operation(s). More than 60% conducted independent trials with one or more technologies, with 50% of these trials resulting in permanent adoptions. The project's planning and design had a more positive effect on growers' opinion of the project than the type of collaborations and sources of funding. Specific strategies that had a substantially positive effect on growers' opinions included: (1) the project's ‘whole system’ treatment design; (2) use of large plots to accommodate field-sized equipment; and (3) collaboration among scientific disciplines and with local growers. Seven variables known to influence the adoption of innovation were also tested against growers' decisions to try any of the project's technology in their own farm operations. Personal character variables influenced individuals' decisions to try project technology more so than environmental conditions. Level of education, previous adoption behavior and average annual rainfall significantly influenced growers' behavior (P<0.05). Our survey population consisted of early users of conservation-based farming technology, primarily innovators and early adopters. The Ralston Project made the greatest impact on current adopters and users of conservation-based farming technology. Interest among non-users was also high enough to suggest that the Ralston Project contributed positively to the diffusion of conservation cropping systems and associated technology into the greater grower community. We discovered from this survey that the planning and execution of field research plays a significant and influential role in transferring more complex, and perhaps high-risk, conservation-based farm technology. By understanding how research and field design affect different user groups within the grower community, professionals can identify appropriate strategies to expand interest beyond their primary target audience and influence attitudes and behaviors that facilitate widespread adoption.

In the winter of 2004–2005, over 300 of West Virginia's farmers' market vendors were surveyed with regard to sales levels, promotional techniques and operational characteristics such as hours worked, types of products produced and length of season. Vendors were categorized based on part-time, full-time or retired status, and full-time farmers, both with and without off-farm jobs, were found to be distinct from part-time and retired vendors with respect to 2004 total farmers' market sales and the percentage of household income from farmers' markets. Econometric analysis [ordinary least squares (OLS)] was performed to identify the impact of explanatory variables on total farmers' market sales, percentage of household income from farmers' market sales and amount of household income from farmers' market sales. Independent variables such as bargaining, cost-plus pricing, selling at markets outside West Virginia and providing print materials were found to have a positive impact on annual sales. The number of products produced, distance traveled to market and number of weeks at market were also positively related to the percentage of income obtained from farmers' market sales. Both part-time and retired producers received a lower percentage of household income from farmers' markets relative to full-time producers. Retired and part-time, along with limited-resource vendors (with annual household income less than $20,000) were also found to have lower total sales in the 2004 season. Identifying the characteristics associated with greater farmers' market sales and a higher reliance on such sales for household income will help in the sustained success of markets as engines of economic development and small farm viability.

Conventional soil management systems (SMS) use synthetic inputs to maximize crop productivity, which leads to environmental degradation. Organic SMS is an alternative that is claimed to prevent or mitigate such negative environmental impacts. Vegetable production systems rely on frequent tillage to prepare beds and manage weeds, and are also characterized by little crop residue input. The use of crop residues and organic fertilizers may counteract the negative impacts of intensive vegetable production. To test this hypothesis, we evaluated the effect of sweet corn (Zea mays L. var. rugosa) residue incorporation in a corn–cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) rotation on crop yields, nutrient uptake, weed biomass and soil nutrients for organic and conventional SMS in two contrasting soil types (a Chromosol and a Vertosol). Yields of corn and cabbage under the organic SMS were not lower than the conventional SMS, possibly due to the equivalent N, P and K nutrients applied. Macro-nutrient uptake between the organic and conventional SMS did not differ for cabbage heads. Corn residue incorporation reduced the average in-crop weed biomass in cabbage crops by 22% in 2010 and by 47% in 2011. Corn residue-induced inhibitions on weed biomass may be exploited as a supplementary tool to mechanical weed control for the organic SMS, potentially reducing the negative impacts of cultivation on soil organic carbon. Residue incorporation and the organic SMS increased the average total soil N by 7 and 4% compared with the treatments without residue and the conventional SMS, respectively, indicating the longer-term fertility gains of these treatments. Exchangeable K, but not Colwell P, in the soil was significantly increased by residue incorporation. The clayey Vertosol conserved higher levels of nutrients than the sandy Chromosol. Yields under organic SMS can match that of conventional SMS. Residue incorporation in soil improved soil nutrients and reduced weed biomass.

Innovation is essential for agricultural and economic development, especially in today's rapidly changing global environment. While farmers have been recognized as innovation generators, many innovation studies continue to consider them as recipients or adopters of externally promoted innovations only. Based on household data from Ghana, this study, in contrast, investigates the innovation-generating behavior among rural farmers. Inspired by two innovation theories—induced innovation and innovation systems—we specifically focus on how to build the capacity of farmers to generate innovations. Controlling for selection bias, we show that participation in farmer field fora (FFF), a participatory extension approach, can play a positive role in strengthening farmers' innovation-generating capacity. Specifically, we show that FFF participants have about 27% higher probability of generating innovations than non-participants, and FFF participation appears to increase the number of innovation-generating practices implemented by a farm household by about 49%. However, we do not find significant spillover effects of FFF on the innovation-generating capacity of non-participants, which has implications for the cost-effectiveness of the FFF program. The results also indicate that education and risk preference are important drivers of farmers' innovations. We conclude that policies for the generation of innovations among farmers should focus on building innovation capacity through institutional arrangements that permit interactions and learning between stakeholders.

There is a need to improve geographical and financial access to healthy foods for limited resource populations in rural areas. Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) programs can improve access to healthy foods in rural and limited-resource populations. However, research is needed to discern the most appealing conditions for a CSA (e.g. price, frequency, food quantity) among rural, low-income customers. The goal of this study was to understand low-income consumers' preferences related to participation in a CSA program, considering price, frequency, food quantity and accessibility (e.g. distance) conditions. A modified exploratory choice experiment exercise was embedded within in-depth interviews to examine willingness to participate in CSA under a variety of conditions among 42 low-income adults with at least one child in the household in North Carolina, New York, Vermont and Washington. Willingness to participate in a CSA under each condition was summed and compared across conditions. Results were stratified by race, number of children and household members and McNemar's test and Student's t-test were used to examine differences in willingness between conditions. Salient quotes were extracted to support themes related to each condition. Our analysis suggests that the ideal CSA would be a full-sized share of eight to nine items of mixed variety, distributed every other week, priced at less than US$15, no more than 10 min further than the supermarket (SM) from their home and preferably less expensive but no more than 20% more expensive than SM prices. CSAs interested in reaching rural low-income populations may benefit from considering these consumer-level preferences.

Rapid changes in agricultural systems call for profound changes in agricultural research and extension practices. The Diagnosis, Design, Assessment, Training and Extension (DATE) approach was developed and applied to co-design Conservation Agriculture-based cropping systems in contrasted situations. DATE is a multi-scale, multi-stakeholder participatory approach that integrates scientific and local knowledge. It emerged in response to questions raised by and issues encountered in the design of innovative systems. A key feature of this approach is the high input of innovative systems which are often although not exclusively based on conservation agricultural practices. Prototyping of innovative cropping systems (ICSs) largely relies on a conceptual model of soil–plant–macrofauna–microorganism system functioning. By comparing the implementation of the DATE approach and conservation agriculture-based cropping systems in Madagascar, Lao PDR, and Cambodia, we show that: (i) the DATE approach is flexible enough to be adapted to local conditions; (ii) market conditions need to be taken into account in designing agricultural development scenarios; and (iii) the learning process during the transition to conservation agriculture requires time. The DATE approach not only enables the co-design of ICSs with farmers, but also incorporates training and extension dimensions. It feeds back practitioners’ questions to researchers, and provides a renewed and extended source of innovation to farmers.

Through the process of globalization, food has experienced an intense territorial restructuring process. Local agric-food links have weakened at the same time as daily products arrived from distant lands. There is presently a wide international debate on the importance of transport in the configuration of the agric-food system and its contribution in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG). The direct environmental costs of the transport of imported food, that is the ‘external food miles’, have been estimated in kilometer (km), ton (t), ton-kilometer (t-km) and GHG in Spain between 1995 and 2011. The analysis is made by ten food groups including 136 products, with special attention to the most important ones (cereals and animal feed), as well as by means of transport (air, rail, road and water) and from 113 different countries belonging to six geographical areas. Two phases are identified during this period: an expansive phase (1995–2007), in which the t-km of imported food increased from 81.8 to 147.8 million t-km and environmental pressure rose from 3.1 to 5.4 million CO2-eq t, and a recession phase (2007–2011), in which environmental pressure subsided as a consequence of the reduction of imports, even though it still remained above the 1995 level. The article reveals a clear interrelation between amounts, distances and modal distribution when it comes to determining the environmental cost of transporting food imports in the two periods studied. It also reflects on the role of the external food miles in the Spanish agri-food system from a sustainability perspective.

A 3-year (2011–2013) field trial was carried out in a mature vineyard (Vitis vinifera L., cv. Sangiovese), planted in 2003, to assess physiological responses of grapevines to biodynamic management. Starting in 2007, the vineyard was managed with organic production protocols in accordance with EC Regulations (834/2007). In 2008, the vineyard (2 ha) was divided in two large plots, with each plot having similar soil physico-chemical properties. One of the plots was managed with organic protocols per EC Regulations and the other with biodynamic practices, consisting of spray application of preparations 500, 500 K, fladen and 501. During the 2011–2013 season, the biodynamic preparations were used at least twice per year, with the exception of 501 that was applied only once in 2013. Concentration of hormones and mineral elements in biodynamic preparations were determined. Biodynamically managed vines showed lower stomatal conductance in all years and lower leaf water potential in 2012. Leaf photosynthetic activity was not influenced by cultivation method. Biodynamic management led to an increase in leaf enzymatic activities of endochitinase (EC 3.2.1.14), exochitinase (β-N-acetylhexosaminidase, EC 3.2.1.52 and chitin 1,4-β-chitobiosidase) and β-1,3-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.39), which are typically correlated with plant biotic and abiotic stresses and associated with induced plant resistance. Year effects were observed with 1,3-β-glucanase, whose activity in 2012 was 4.1-fold higher than in 2013. Disease incidence and grape yields were not different between organic and biodynamic treatments. This study provided a strong indication of a stimulation of natural defense compounds in grapes grown under biodynamic cultivation, but subsequent effects on plant protection and productivity require further evaluation.

Cover crops can generate both on-farm and water-quality benefits. However, their use in Iowa remains subdued, partly due to implementation costs faced by farmers. We tested the hypothesis that monetary incentives through cost-share programs are effective at increasing the area of farmland planted to cover crops in Iowa, as opposed to the alternative in which the participants of cost-share programs would have planted the same cover-crop acreage in the absence of payment. We found that cost-share payments induced a 15 percentage-point expansion in cover-crop acreage beyond what would have been planted in the absence of payment, among farmers who participated in cost-share programs. The estimated additionality rate was 54%, suggesting at least half of cost-share expenditures funded cover-crop acreage that would not have been planted without payment. Furthermore, we estimated the public cost to reduce nitrogen loads to Iowa waterways via cover crop, beyond what would have occurred in the absence of cost-share programs, to be $1.72–$4.70 lb−1 N ($3.79–$10.36 kg−1 N). Farmers absorbed about 70% of those costs as private losses, and cost-share payments offset the remaining 30%. Although the additionality rate estimated in this study is less than what has been found in other states, the cost-share programs in Iowa have been relatively cost-effective, due to their lower payment rate.

There is growing evidence of urban poverty in and around cities in sub-Saharan Africa in the form of food and nutrition insecurity. Although many studies have been done across sub-Saharan Africa on urban agriculture, food and nutrition insecurity, little is known about the association of urban agriculture to household food and nutrition insecurity along the urban–rural continuum, especially in West African cities. Therefore, a survey was carried out between August and September 2014 in and around Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), using a transect approach to guide the data collection. The purpose of this study was to understand the dynamics of urban, periurban and rural agriculture and its association with household food and nutrition insecurity. A total of 240 households participated in the survey. From these households, data were collected on 179 women of reproductive age (15–49 yr) and 133 children under the age of 5 yr to compute Women's Dietary Diversity Scores (WDDS) and other anthropometric indices. The results of this study provide a general picture of crop production which is inclined to subsistence and income generation. Households in rural and periurban areas were more engaged in crop and livestock production compared with their urban area counterparts. Households in periurban areas had the highest relative proportion (54%) of food insecurity (household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) > 11), compared with urban areas (39%) and rural areas (45%). At the same time the periurban households had the highest relative proportion of stunting and wasting prevalence compared with urban and rural households. Households in the rural areas had the highest dietary diversity (WDDS ≥ 6), compared with periurban and urban households. Households keeping livestock significantly experienced less wasting (weight-for-height index (WHZ)) (coef = −0.15; P = 0.008) by a factor of 0.15, and overweight (body mass index (BMI)-for-age (BAZ)) (coef = −0.12; P = 0.015) by a factor of 0.12 compared with households not doing livestock keeping. Households involved in crop production significantly experienced more food insecurity, HFIAS (coef. = 2.55; P = 0.042) by a factor of 2.55 compared with households without crop production. The complexity of periurban areas coupled with the scourge of food and nutrition insecurity will require more periurban agriculture and food policy consideration.

As farms are consolidated into larger operations and small farms close down for economic reasons, rural areas lose ecological, social and economic functions related to farming. Biodiversity and scenic, open-vista landscapes are lost as fields are left unmanaged. Social and economic benefits such as local job opportunities and meeting places disappear. Four Swedish rural communities were examined to increase our understanding of the functions that a diverse agriculture provides and which of these are lost as farms cease operation and overall rural social capital is depleted. Workshops and interviews with village action groups and with farmers were carried out. Both groups identified key functions from farming that are important to the rural community, such as production of food and fiber, businesses and jobs, human services, local security, ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling and biodiversity, and functions pertaining to quality of life. Several ways in which village action groups can support agriculture were identified that current industrial agriculture and even agri-environmental schemes fail to achieve. These include organizing local meeting places, encouraging local processing and consumption and supporting farmers in their work. We conclude that agriculture and village action groups match well in community development and that policies supporting this match would be useful.

We analyzed the productivity levels of smallholder farms in northern Thailand practicing different ‘clean and safe’ vegetable farming systems or conventional vegetable (CV) production. ‘Clean and safe’ farmers are categorized into three groups based on their use of synthetic chemicals: organic, pesticide-free and safe-use. Farm-level data on vegetable production were collected from random samples of farms operating these farming systems. A standard stochastic production frontier model and a metafrontier model were estimated for each system to obtain estimates of technical efficiency (TE) with respect to their cohorts, metatechnology ratios (MTRs, showing the extent of technology gaps between farming systems) and overall productivity measures. Productivity levels were found to vary moderately between farming systems. ‘Clean and safe’ farms achieved a higher mean TE score than conventional farms, indicating a more efficient use of inputs in producing a certain level of output within their system. However, their MTRs were significantly lower than those of conventional farmers, indicating greater production technology constraints because of the need to conform to strict guidelines. All four farming systems had at least one farmer who could overcome the technological constraints to achieve the highest possible output regardless of the technology used. Effective assistance providers were found to be crucial for farmers to achieve high productivity in the organic farming system. Improvements are needed to raise low productivity levels through technology transfer, value chain improvement and farmer capacity in production and marketing. The required improvement strategies differ among farming systems.

Local food purchasing programs at institutions such as K-12 schools, colleges and hospitals offer benefits including supporting farms and local economies, encouraging more healthful eating habits of patrons and fostering closer connections between farmers and consumers. Increasing in number and expanding in breadth, Farm to Institution (FTI) markets are promising outlets that may fulfill social and economic motivations for farmers. However, significant challenges and barriers have kept many from participating; farmers interested in this market will incur transaction costs, with high negotiation costs in particular due to product differentiation (in this case, by provenance) and less established markets and terms. Researchers have just begun to study farmers’ perspectives on FTI and, to date, have primarily done so through convenience sampling. By utilizing a representative farmer sample, this study provides a major contribution to FTI research. This survey study was designed to better understand Michigan vegetable farmers’ interest and willingness to participate in institutional markets and to identify perceived barriers and opportunities. Michigan is an ideal location for this research as it boasts one of the most diverse sets of agricultural crops in the US, has an economy highly reliant on the food and agriculture industry and has thriving FTI activity with extensive, ongoing outreach, education and research. Results of this survey study showed that half (50%) of the respondents (n = 311) reported interest in selling to at least one institution type (of K-12 schools, colleges and hospitals), but only a small percentage (7%) had yet sold produce to institutions. The most frequently reported motivators to sell to institutions were supplying healthy foods to customers (77%), fair, steady prices (77%) and supplying local food to consumers (76%), indicating that farmers’ motivations are largely based in social values. Smaller scale farmers (less than 25 acres) were significantly less likely to rate economic factors and help in meeting logistical challenges as important, which suggests that they see more potential social value in FTI markets while larger farmers will seek to minimize their transaction costs related to this market. This research can inform the development of scale-appropriate farmer education to foster this market opportunity and its contribution to regional food system development. As demand for local food increases, it is critical to further examine the viability of FTI markets and continue to understand the opportunities and challenges to farmers of different types and scales to participate.

In recent decades, there has been growing interest among farming and scientific communities toward integrated crop–range–livestock farming because of evidence of increased crop production, soil health, environmental services and resilience to increased climatic variability. This paper reviews studies on existing cropping systems and integrated crop–range–livestock systems across the USA which are relevant in the context of summarizing opportunities and challenges associated with implementing long-term crop–range–livestock systems research in the highly variable environment of the central High Plains. With precipitation ranging from 305 to 484mm and uncertain irrigation water supply, this region is especially vulnerable to changing moisture and temperature patterns. The results of our review indicate that diverse crop rotations, reduced soil disturbance and integrated crop–livestock systems could increase economic returns and agroecosystem resilience. Integrating agricultural system components to acquire unique benefits from small- to medium-sized operations, however, is a challenging task. This is because assessment and identification of suitable farming systems, selection of the most efficient integration scheme, and pinpointing the best management practices are crucial for successful integration of components. Effective integration requires development of evaluation criteria that incorporate the efficiency of approaches under consideration and their interactions. Therefore, establishing the basis for more sustainable farming systems in the central High Plains relies on both long-term agricultural systems research and evaluation of short-term dynamics of individual components.

The centralized nature of the United States food production, processing and distribution system makes it difficult for small fruit and vegetable farmers to serve as suppliers to institutional foodservice operations (IFOs), such as schools and hospitals. Due to age, economic and/or health status, it is often the clients of these foodservice operations who would benefit from increasing their consumption of locally grown fruits and vegetables. Unfortunately, institutions are often limited in their resources and food preparation infrastructure, and lack market-based incentives to incorporate locally grown foods into their menus. This study identifies and suggests solutions to barriers that limit the ability of small fruit and vegetable farmers to serve as suppliers to IFOs. Data were collected through an extensive series of focus group meetings held with small-scale fruit and vegetable farmers in three South-Atlantic states. From these meetings, practical marketing considerations, such as payment terms, and processing, packaging and delivery requirements of supplying institutional foodservice buyers, were identified as obstacles to the efficient function of this market channel. Food safety challenges, including the related issues of obtaining (food) products liability insurance and food safety certifications, were also acknowledged among top concerns. A majority of the identified challenges were similar to those reported in other studies, but several were complicated by characteristics of farm production, limited food system infrastructure and marketing experiences in the study region. Several practical solutions to overcoming some of these marketing constraints are offered.