In choosing among alternative wildlife management techniques, trade-offs between animal welfare and conservation, utility or economics are often apparent. This paper reviews the roles of science, scientists, regulators and educators in attempts to overcome this inter-dependence and to make simultaneous progress on all fronts. Illustrations are drawn in particular from trapping and pest population control. Against the real progress that can undoubtedly be made through scientific study, there is a regrettable lack of structure because of poor philosophical and logical coherence within the welfare movement.

This paper describes a two-part study of small predators in New Zealand forests. First, during 12 days of live-trapping, 31 wild ship rats were captured, tagged and released: 9 were handled while anaesthetised using halothane and 22 were handled while conscious using gloves. There was a significant difference between the two groups of ship rats in live-recapture rate: 4 out of 9 rats that had been handled while anaesthetised were recaptured alive, compared with 0 of 22 that were handled while conscious. Second, during 12 days of removal-trapping, 23 ship rats were killed, of which 6 were tagged, including 4 of the 9 that had been previously handled while anaesthetised (2 of which had also been recaptured alive during the live-trapping) and 2 that had previously been handled while conscious. These observations have implications for the statistical estimation of population density from capture-mark-recapture data and for the development of protocols for minimising stress in captured animals, especially nocturnal species released from traps in daylight.

The modern dairy industry involves close contact between the stockperson and their animals and thus complex relationships develop between stockperson and cow. This study examines the assessment of stockmanship quality on commercial dairy farms and aims to develop useable protocols for on-farm assessment of stockmanship for inclusion in a quality-assurance scheme. In this study the behaviour of cows was used to assess the quality of stockmanship on fifteen commercial dairy farms, which varied in level of production and intensification. The behavioural reactions of cows to a novel human and the behaviour of the stockperson before, during and after milking were scored, and stockpersons completed a fifty-question psychometric attitude questionnaire, which was made up of seven subgroups of questions. Preliminary results indicated that stockpersons differ in the behaviour they use when handling cows. Stockpersons on zero-grazing farms appeared to use fewer positive tactile behaviours and more severe negative behaviour. The behavioural responses of cows in a novel human approach test differed between farm types. Cows on straw-court farms appeared to be more flighty and less confident in the presence of a novel human. Differences were observed in mean attitude scores for the seven subgroups of questions. Job type appears to have an effect on the extent of the stockperson's positive attitude toward cows, animals in general, job satisfaction and farm economics. The results indicate that there are differences in quality of stockmanship between farms and that the three methods chosen do identify these. They show that the human-animal relationship is a potential source of fear for cows in dairy production and therefore can be used to identify poor stockmanship.

An attempt was made to encourage more foraging behaviour in eight pair-housed adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). No special device and no special food were used Daily commercial dry food rations (238g per animal) consisting of 33 bar-shaped or 16 star-shaped biscuits per animal were placed on the mesh ceiling of the cages instead of in the feed-boxes. This induced an 80-fold increase (17.0 vs 1362.9s) and 289-fold increase (12.3 vs 3551.4s), respectively, in foraging time. The animals spent on average 9.6 per cent and 24.7 per cent respectively, of four-hour observation sessions foraging for biscuits from the mesh ceiling. Working for their food did not discourage them from eating all left-overs in the course of a day regardless of the shape of the biscuits.

It was concluded that the new feeding procedure enhanced the animals’ behavioural well-being by encouraging foraging activities thereby helping to counteract understimulation.

It has been claimed that the present farming environment does not meet foxes’ needs for social behaviour. In this study we measured the welfare of farmed blue foxes, Alopex lagopus, housed in two different social and spatial conditions: i) traditional housing (group T) where a male and a female cub were housed together and their vixen alone in standard (1.2m2) fox cages; and ii) family housing (group F) where a vixen and her five cubs were housed together in a connected six-cage system (7.2m2). Production-related welfare parameters (weight gain and the incidence of bite wounds on fur) as well as physiological ones (adrenal mass and serum Cortisol response to ACTH administration) were measured in these two groups.

No differences were found in any of the measured parameters between the vixens housed in traditional and family units. In cubs, there was less difference between the sexes in weight gain in group F than in group T, and a significantly lower weight gain was evident only in group T female cubs. The serum Cortisol level in response to an ACTH challenge was higher in group T cubs and independent of the sex of the animal, while heavier adrenals were observed in group T male cubs only. We conclude that the enlarged cage system combined with group housing had some beneficial effects on the measured performance- and welfare-related indicators in blue fox cubs.

The welfare of farmed animals can be greatly influenced by the availability of appropriately designed and tested handling systems. Farmers who start a new enterprise, such as deer farming, with a small herd may be reluctant to invest in a permanently located handling facility, and this may have an adverse effect on the welfare of the deer. The design, construction and use of a portable handling facility for farmed deer is described. The advantages to management and the benefits to the welfare of deer of being able to transport the handling system to where the deer are grazing are illustrated. The system enhances the ability to monitor the incidence of disease and injury in a deer herd and provides for proper therapeutic or prophylactic treatments to be given as required.

Dairy cattle have a high level of interaction with humans throughout their productive life. Welfare and productivity are affected if cows find these interactions aversive, so tests assessing fear of humans have been included in welfare assessment protocols. Practicality issues suggest that all animals on large farms cannot be tested. If a sub-sample is chosen, then animal factors affecting the response must be investigated. To assess the effect of age, 114 Holstein cows were tested at regular intervals across their productive lifetime. Animals were tested at 12-15 months of age, first breeding, prior to first calving, then at early, mid and late lactation for 1st and 2nd lactations and into their 3rd lactation. The test involved approaching each cow when standing in the passageway of the barn with sufficient space to retreat. Response was recorded on a 0-8 incremental scale, and several qualitative terms were scored using sliding scales from absence to full presence. There was a significant effect of age on response. Cows became more approachable with increasing age, up until the middle of the first lactation, with no further change beyond this stage. Cows became more at ease and less nervous with increasing age. Individual cow within-group rankings for tests at each stage showed correlation with rankings in the following stage. As this is a single-farm study, further research is necessary to assess interaction of factors such as housing, breed and quality of human handling on the long-term development of fear of humans. However, the results suggest that the age of the animal tested affects the response, and that animals of different age groups should be tested when a sub-sampling is required to assess welfare on large farms.

Good animal welfare is crucial for the success of circuses and zoos. Epidemiological studies of animal welfare that investigate associations between animal-based measures (ABMs) and resource- and management-based measures are needed. However, due to the relatively low numbers of animals within each species kept at individual facilities, such investigations can be difficult to carry out. In this paper, we report the analysis of a multi-facility epidemiological study using data from all regulatory inspections of circus and zoo animals in Sweden for 2010 to 2014. Information from 42 inspections of 38 circuses, and 318 inspections of 179 zoos was analysed. For ABMs assessed during routine inspections of circuses (n = 14) and zoos (n = 61), 9.1 and 14.3% did not comply with requirements for general care of hooves/claws and coat, 10.0 and 8.6% for body condition, and 0 and 1.7% for animal cleanliness, respectively. In addition, the zoo checklist assessed whether animals were kept in appropriate groups, finding non-compliance in 17.0% of inspections. The most frequent non-compliant resource- and management-based measures at routine inspections of circuses were for space (41.7%) and exercise requirements (38.5%). For zoos, 29.4% did not comply with space followed by 28.8% for enrichment requirements. In multivariable logistic regression analyses, zoos that had inadequate or unsafe housing and space design, inadequate bedding, or failed to meet nutritional requirements, were more likely to be non-compliant with at least one ABM. The checklists should be improved to better assess welfare status by including more ABMs; benchmarking of risks and trends over time is also recommended.

Although there is still some debate regarding whether fish have the capacity to feel pain, recent scientific research seems to support the notion that fish can indeed suffer. However, the continued scientific discourse has led to questions regarding how members of the public perceive issues of pain and welfare in fish. A questionnaire was developed and randomly distributed to 700 members of the general public in New Zealand. Questionnaires gathered basic demographic information, information regarding respondents’ participation in and opinions on angling practice, and opinions about fish welfare and pain. The response rate was 62.4% (437/700). The primary aim of the study was to assess public concerns for the impact of catch-and-release angling (CRA) on the welfare of fish. Most respondents indicated a belief that fish are capable of feeling some pain although older respondents scored the capacity of fish to feel pain lower than younger respondents. Likewise, most respondents believed that CRA causes pain and compromises survival in fish. Principle Component Analysis identified two major components within responses. These were: i) importance placed on good fishing techniques; and ii) concern for pain and survival of fish. Female respondents showed more concern about angling practices and their impact on pain and survival of fish than male respondents. Respondents who participate in CRA and considered it acceptable showed less concern for pain and survival in fish than both respondents who do not participate and those who considered CRA unacceptable. The majority of respondents considered angling an acceptable pastime (65%; 284/435) but also indicated support for the introduction of guidelines and regulations to improve fish welfare in the future (76.4%; 334/434). Those respondents that did not believe regulations were necessary provided statistically lower importance scores for both pain and survival in fish and good angling practices than respondents that did. Education about good angling practices may provide the best route by which fish welfare can be improved.

The development of a novel structured questionnaire instrument to measure health-related quality of life (HRQL) in individual farmed pigs was described previously (companion paper). The instrument embraces the measurement of positive welfare, and was developed with farmers and stockpersons, for use by them on-farm. This paper describes the development of a scoring methodology for the instrument and provides evidence for its construct validity. Field testing on four commercial farm units indicated that scores for health and affect correctly allocated 88.7% of pigs to known treatment groups and strongly predicted previously defined intervention levels. The tool was also used in an experimental study alongside other measures to identify the impact of early-life challenges (mixing of pregnant gilts and tail-docking neonatal pigs) on subsequent pig welfare, and identified long-term changes in HRQL of prenatally stressed piglets, a finding supported by other measures. This work describes a novel approach to farm-level welfare assessment in which entirely animal-based HRQL measurement can provide a measure of welfare at the herd level while retaining information about individuals within the herd and about aspects of provision that can be targets of intervention to improve welfare, and promotes a move from welfare assurance to welfare enhancement.

Until now, only a limited amount of research has been carried out on addressing attitudes towards sport horse welfare (AHW). In order to contribute to filling this gap, the goals of this study were two-fold: the investigation of the influence of different demographic factors and factors related to equestrianism on the AHW and the demonstration of the applicability of Partial Least Squares Equation Modelling (PLS) in this field of research. An online survey was conducted among 2,947 equestrians. A research model was established based on eleven factors, which were investigated for their potential influence on the AHW and their relationships to each other. This model was analysed by means of PLS which, to the best of our knowledge, has not been used before to investigate human attitudes towards horses (Equus caballus). The results show that the factors with the highest impacts on the AHW were the affection for animals, the attitude towards classically organised equestrianism and the utility orientation. Gender, income, agricultural background, tradition, brand orientation and the importance of breed and pedigree were also found to exert a significant influence on the AHW. In contrast, age and involvement in horse-riding as a hobby were found to have no effect on the AHW. Furthermore, several significant relationships could be identified among the different factors. In conclusion, the present study provides an insight into the factors influencing the complex AHW and demonstrates the applicability of the PLS for research in this field.

Six drug regulatory reviewers and 11 pharmaceutical industry scientists were interviewed to explore their perspectives on the obstacles and opportunities for greater implementation of the Three Rs (replacement, reduction, refinement) in drug research and development. Participants generally supported the current level of animal use in the pharmaceutical industry and viewed in vitro methods as supporting, but not replacing, the use of animals. Obstacles to greater use of the Three Rs cited by participants included the lack of non-animal alternatives; requirements for statistical validity; reluctance by industry and regulators to depart from established patterns of animal use; the priority of commercial objectives ahead of the Three Rs; and concern that less animal testing could jeopardise human safety. Opportunities identified for the Three Rs included the development of better animal models including genetically modified (GM) animals; pursuit of more basic knowledge, notably drug action on gene expression; re-use of animals; greater use of pilot studies; using sufficient numbers of animals per test to avoid repeating inconclusive studies; regular review of animal data in regulatory requirements; and following the regulatory option of combining segments of reproductive toxicology studies into one study. In some areas, greater implementation of the Three Rs seemed well aligned with industry priorities, for example, phenotypic characterisation of GM animals and validation of alternative methods. In other areas, wider use of the Three Rs may require building consensus on areas of disagreement including the usefulness of death as an endpoint; the suitability of re-using animals; and whether GM animals and the use of pilot studies contribute to reduction.

Groups of end-of-lay (spent) hens were subjected to three different treatments on a short flat-belt conveyor. Observations of bird behaviour indicated that the incidences of wing flapping, loss of balance and alarm calling significantly increased when birds were conveyed up and down slopes in comparison to being conveyed horizontally (P<0.01). Birds were significantly more hesitant when approaching the incline compared to the horizontal (P<0.001). However, differences in behavioural responses were not reflected in times spent in tonic immobility or open-field tests. There were no significant differences for the three treatments. It is possible that human contact, before and after conveying, was a more significant fear stimulus than the treatment itself.

The objectives of this research were to evaluate the effect of age and delivering method during carbon dioxide (CO2) euthanasia on the welfare of pigs (Sus scrofa). In Experiment 1, pigs aged 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 weeks (GRAD; n = 5 pigs per age) were placed in a chamber gradually filled with CO2 released at a flow rate of 20% chamber volume per min. In Experiment 2, three week old pigs were placed in a chamber pre-filled with 100% CO2 (PRE; n = 5). In both experiments, plasma cortisol concentrations were measured before and after exposure to CO2. Behaviours indicative of stress and insensibility were recorded continuously during gas exposure; panting, open-mouth breathing, righting response, escape attempts, loss of posture, muscular excitation and respiratory arrest. Cortisol concentrations were elevated in pigs after CO2 euthanasia, regardless of age or gas delivery method. The behavioural response to CO2 was not affected by pig age. Latency to display panting, righting response, escape attempts, loss of posture, muscular excitation and respiratory arrest were shorter for PRE than GRAD pigs, but, duration of escape attempts and the cortisol response to euthanasia were similar between PRE and GRAD pigs. However, pigs placed in a chamber pre-filled with CO2 spent a greater proportion of time prior to loss of posture displaying escape attempts. Regardless of age or induction method, exposure to CO2 causes behavioural changes indicative of stress prior to loss of consciousness, therefore there is a need to continue to evaluate alternative methods of euthanasia.

Commercially reared ostrich chicks are typically kept in barren, indoor environments. This experiment investigated the effects of environmental enrichment on the pecking behaviour, exploration, food consumption and novelty responses of ostrich chicks aged 10 to 21 days. Four groups of 20 randomly selected ostrich chicks were housed in heated huts at one day of age (Day 1), and at Day 10 were allowed access to sand-covered areas (30 m2) that were either barren (control: n = 2 groups) or enriched with cabbage, coniferous cones and sticks (enriched: n = 2 groups). Pecking behaviour was recorded by focal sampling the behaviour of five chicks per group for four 5 min periods per day on Day 10 and Day 13. All enriched chicks pecked at the cabbage, of which they consumed considerable amounts (26 ± 3 g/chick/day). The enriched chicks did not have higher overall pecking frequencies but tended to peck less at fixtures in the pen, compared to control chicks. Additionally, the enriched chicks showed increased exploration in terms of the percentage of chicks observed outside the heated huts. In a novel object test, enriched chicks stayed closer to and delivered more pecks at sorrel (Rumex acetosa) than did control chicks, whereas there was no difference between the treatment groups in their response to adult ostrich feathers. Enriched chicks consumed more food (79 ± 0.4 g/chick/day) than did control chicks (67 ± 09 g/chick/day) during the experimental period. We suggest that environmental enrichment improves the welfare of ostrich chicks in terms of increasing exploration and reducing pecking at fixtures in the pen, without compromising food consumption.

Many of Australia's nocturnal mammals are rare or endangered in the wild. The behavioural integrity of captive populations of endangered species can be maintained through the application of environmental enrichment techniques. This study investigated the effectiveness of feeding enrichment in promoting behavioural diversity, enclosure usage and species-typical behaviours in the ghost bat (Macroderma gigas) and the yellow-bellied glider (Petaurus australis). Animals were observed for 300 min day-1 over three consecutive time periods: baseline (12 non-consecutive days); enrichment: (12 consecutive days); and post-enrichment: (12 non-consecutive days). The use of a live insect dispenser decreased grooming and increased out-of-sight and social behaviour in the ghost bat. Artificial gum trees promoted species-typical behaviours in the yellow-bellied glider. Enrichment for nocturnal mammals had variable results and different welfare implications for these animals.

Although barbering is common in laboratory mice (Mus musculus), little is known about its effects, both on animal welfare and the research data collected from barbered mice. To gain information on the occurrence of barbering and related risk factors in animal facilities in Germany, we performed an online survey. All the respondents (n = 32 animal facilities) had experienced barbering in their facility. In most cases, less than 10% of the mice were affected, and the age of onset was mostly observed to be 2 to < 6 months. A greater susceptibility was reported in females and in C57BL/6 mice, but this could not be verified as the prevalence of females and the C57BL/6 strain was unknown. One facility reported differences in barbering between commercial animal suppliers. Barbering was also recorded in mice provided with enrichments, such as houses, wood-gnawing blocks, tunnels, running wheels/discs or cage dividers. None of the responding facilities provided swings, structural elements such as an elevated platform or foraging and cognitive enrichment. The questions of whether barbering may have an impact on study results and whether victims of barbering can be used for experiments revealed mixed opinions, most likely due to a lack of data on potential effects. This survey clearly demonstrated barbering to be a widely underestimated problem that is not given enough attention. We suggest that the occurrence of barbering should be systematically documented in every animal facility and reported in research articles, to provide a greater understanding of barbering and its potential effects.

It is frequently claimed that breeding animals that we know will have unavoidable health problems is at least prima facie wrong, because it harms the animals concerned. However, if we take ‘harm’ to mean ‘makes worse off’, this claim appears false. Breeding an animal that will have unavoidable health problems does not make any particular individual animal worse off, since an animal bred without such problems would be a different individual animal. Yet, the intuition that there is something ethically wrong about breeding animals — such as purebred pedigree dogs — in ways that seem negatively to affect welfare remains powerful. In this paper, an animal version of what is sometimes called the non-identity problem is explored, along with a number of possible ways of understanding what might be wrong with such breeding practices, if it is not that they harm the animal itself. These possibilities include harms to others, placeholder arguments, non-comparative ideas of harm, an ‘impersonal’ approach, and concerns about human attitudes and dispositions.

The effects of maternal and peer separation during infancy and juvenescence on adolescent and adult chimpanzee behaviour were studied. The aim was to provide an insight into the social development of the species and to investigate human influence on this process. Forty-three adolescent and adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), from a variety of backgrounds, were studied at five zoos in the UK. Details of play and grooming interactions were recorded. Competence at initiating, maintaining and contributing to play and grooming interactions was assessed. It was predicted that, regardless of their present environment, captive chimpanzees that were reared without their mother would be less competent and complex in these social abilities than mother-reared chimpanzees. Results indicated that the chimpanzees' social skills showed few detrimental effects of maternal separation. Nevertheless, individuals that had been human-reared demonstrated more unsuccessful initiations of social interactions and fewer polyadic grooming interactions than their mother-reared peers. Therefore, rearing background may have only a limited effect on adult chimpanzees' social competence. Adult chimpanzees that were hand-reared or nursery-reared may be exhibiting a recovery of their social skills, or they may be unaffected by their rearing background; alternatively, the effects of rearing may have been masked by more significant factors, such as current management.

The present study examines the plasma cortisol reaction of suckling and non-suckling calves and their dams to short-term emotional stressors. Twenty six cow-calf pairs were randomly allocated into one of two treatments: restricted suckling (R) or artificially milk-fed (A). On the day of weaning, blood samples were taken to determine the basal cortisol level in the calves' home-pen. Immediately, calves from both groups were moved to an unfamiliar surrounding and isolated. After sampling cows were then moved to a trimming pen, and restrained for three hours. Higher cortisol concentrations were found in A-calves in comparison with R-calves starting 90 min post-isolation through until the end of the experiment (90 min later). A significant increase was detected 60 min post-isolation in A-calves, with highest values averaging 29.22 ± 7.27 ng ml–1, decreasing to basal levels 130 min later. In cows, no difference in serum cortisol concentration was found either between treatments or over time. It was concluded that calves allowed to suckle react to a short-term emotional stressor with less plasma cortisol concentration than artificially reared calves.