The availability and complexity of escape routes are key aspects in modulating aggression. The effect of increased vertical space on the occurrence and severity of aggression was studied in a large group of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Fifty wooden poles were added to the outdoor enclosure at Chester Zoological Gardens, England, UK. Connected with ropes and nets to form a complex vertical structure, they substantially increased the potential for escape routes during aggression. This study is an investigation into whether the use of the new vertical structure reduced the severity of aggression. Aggressive interactions among 29 chimpanzees (five adult males, 15 adult females, and nine immatures) were recorded whenever observed. We found that the proportion of total aggression involving the use of the vertical structure was much lower than expected based on the time individuals spent on the structure. We also found that no severe aggression was initiated when individuals were on the vertical structure. Most importantly, the proportion of severe aggression was lower when recipients of aggression moved onto the vertical structure than when they stayed on the ground. Furthermore, incidents of serious injuries were reduced after the vertical structure was added. The vertical structure appeared to function as a deterrent of aggression and an important escape route during aggressive interactions, which reduced the severity of aggression. Our results suggest that complex vertical structures are highly beneficial for semi-arboreal species with the potential for severe aggression and should be strongly considered by zoos housing such species.

Intense selection for productivity may have indirectly affected some behavioural traits in poultry. Intensive husbandry systems change rapidly, and the animals may have difficulties in coping with their environment and management. The aims of this study are to examine the fear reactions of two strains of chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) and to test the relationship between these fear reactivity levels and the chickens’ semen characteristics. Semen characteristics may indicate the effect of genetic selection both on the productivity and fitness of the animals. Forty cocks of two genetics strains (an egg-type strain and a meat-type strain), housed in single cages, were used in the study. During the breeding period, semen was collected twice a week from each animal. Each cock was submitted to an open-field test and a tonic immobility test. The results show that strong genetic selection, carried out over a long period on domestic chickens in order to improve egg and meat production, seems to affect some aspects of behaviour. The reactions to the fear tests show many differences between the two strains: in the open-field test, the egg-type cocks show higher levels of exploratory behaviour and lower general fearfulness (eg lower frequency of vocalisations and head movements). On the other hand, the meat-type cocks show a significantly lower duration of tonic immobility, indicating a lower level of fear specifically towards humans. Moreover, a key nearest neighbours analysis carried out using the behavioural data allows us to discriminate between the two strains with an error rate of 0%. These results suggest the potential for genetic selection aimed at reducing fear reactions, both towards novel environments and towards human beings, which may significantly improve the welfare of cocks.

The field of study of university students may influence their attitudes towards animals, which in turn may influence their behaviour. Attitudes to animals in university students in eleven countries were obtained by survey, and the influence of field of study was evaluated after correcting for other influential factors. Students of agriculture were most accepting of killing animals, unnatural practices on animals, animal experimentation and animal rights issues, whereas humanities and arts students were less accepting of unnatural practices on animals and animal experimentation than students of other disciplines. Nevertheless, agriculture students had one of the highest proportions involved in animal protection organisations. It is suggested that regular contact with animals inures agriculture students to animal issues, whereas students in the humanities and arts, that have less contact with farm animals, have greater concern.

In an effort to enhance welfare, behavioural management continually refines methods of non-human primate (NHP) care. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are one of the most cognitively complex captive NHPs and they have been observed to self-medicate in the wild. The population of captive chimpanzees in the US is aged (due to a breeding moratorium instituted in 1998) and will progressively require more medical care as they get older. To functionally simulate natural self-medication behaviour, provide chimpanzees with the opportunity to voluntarily participate in their own healthcare, and open new avenues of communication between caregivers and chimpanzees, we used a medication choice paradigm that allowed chimpanzees to choose their daily arthritis medication. We provided four arthritic, mobility-impaired chimpanzees with meloxicam or ibuprofen in blue or green Gatorade® to establish associations between the coloured drinks and the effects of the medications. We subsequently gave each chimpanzee a choice between the two medications. Behaviour was recorded using 15-min focal animal observations. Mobility was assessed using interactive mobility tests and a caregiver-rating system. One chimpanzee showed a medication preference (ibuprofen over meloxicam). The chimpanzees exhibited no significant behavioural or mobility differences over time, suggesting that ibuprofen and meloxicam may not differ significantly in their ability to alleviate arthritic symptoms. Whether or not the chimpanzees show a medication preference, the opportunity to make meaningful choices and the functional simulation of a complex behaviour, self-medication, is present when using this medication choice technique. Furthermore, the paradigm itself could have potential applications for additional medication options and treatment regimens.

Close collaboration between science and industry is essential for the formulation of evidence-based welfare policies. However, there is a need to recognise and manage potential challenges that may arise during collaborative projects. An applied animal welfare science project evaluating the inclusion of welfare outcome measures into UK pig farm assurance, with a view to industry implementation, is used as a case example to illustrate potential challenges. This project encountered difficulties associated with differences in understanding and expectations, discussion of controversial welfare issues, challenges to personal values and conflict between academic and industry outcomes. With the assistance of an independent review conducted during the project, potential solutions were developed and successfully implemented. It is proposed that similar science-industry partnerships should allow sufficient time for dialogue, distinguish between experimental and applied science, ensure sufficient involvement from interested parties and use facilitation techniques to develop consensus.

Captive bears are prone to developing dental pathology for reasons including longevity in captivity, inappropriate diet, trauma, and stereotypical bar biting. If not detected, this can cause pain and suffering, with negative welfare consequences. As animals cannot verbally express feelings, objective methods are required to detect pain. Some methods of pain assessment can be invasive and impractical but behavioural observations offer a non-invasive alternative. Behavioural assessment for the detection of pain has been described in some domestic species but little published research has applied this to wild animal species. Eight Malayan sun bears (Helarctos malayanus) required dental extractions under anaesthesia. Their behaviour was observed, alongside a control cohort with no visible disease, pre-operatively and at one, two and four weeks post-operatively, when it was assumed the pain had resolved from the original pathology and surgery performed. Behavioural indices measured included general activity, social behaviours, stereotypies, eating-related behaviours and oro-facial behaviours hypothesised to be affected by dental pain. Bears that had received treatment took significantly longer to eat hard sugarcane pre-operatively compared to four weeks post-operatively, and took longer to eat soft porridge one week post-operatively compared to four weeks post-operatively. Untreated bears tended to be more active outdoors one week postoperatively compared to the treatment cohort. Results suggest that using hard foods and assessing the duration of eating behaviours could be useful to indicate dental pain in sun bears. General behavioural assessment of dental pain in sun bears is unlikely to be effective as a single diagnostic tool, but may be combined with other methods of assessment, and further research into this area is warranted.

The post-release survival of hand-reared tawny owls, Strix aluco, was studied. Hand-rearing did not appear to affect the birds’ instinctive behaviour or post-release survival. The recovery of several pellets confirmed that hunting in this species is an innate process. In terms of animal welfare, hand-reared tawny owls do not appear to be at a disadvantage when compared with wild juveniles, indicating that current rearing and release practices are effective.

The aim of this study was a comparison of Animal Needs Index (ANI) data, derived from annual inspections by a control agency, with data collected from 164 selected on-farm flocks concerning feather damage, injuries, egg production, mortality, bodyweight, foot pad dermatitis, keel bone deviations and reactions towards humans (eg flock showed marked avoidance when the observer walked through the hen-house [yes/no]).

Analysis of data showed a low number of significant correlations with total ANI scores and category scores: 1) Locomotion, 2) Social interaction, 3) Flooring, 4) Light, air and noise and 5) Stockmanship. Correlations found were low and total ANI score showed only a positive correlation with egg production at week 52. Category 3 scores correlated positively with egg production at week 70 and negatively with the percentage of hens with featherless areas and total pecking injuries. Category 5 scores showed positive correlations with egg production at week 52 as well as week 70 and negative correlations with mortality at week 52, the percentage of hens with featherless areas, pecking injuries < 0.5 cm and total pecking injuries.

Flocks showing marked avoidance had a lower total ANI score and lower category 3 and category 5 scores.

In conclusion, welfare-related animal-based parameters are poorly reflected by the ANI-35-L/2001. To assess animal welfare more adequately, animal-based parameters have to be considered additionally in a welfare assessment scheme.

Sucrose has been shown to attenuate the behavioural response to painful procedures in human infants undergoing circumcision or blood collection via heelstick. Sucrose has also been found to have a behaviour-modifying effect in neonatal rats exposed to a hot plate. The effect was abolished in neonatal rats by injection of the opioid antagonist naltrexone, suggesting that it was mediated by endogenous opioids. In this experiment, the behaviour of 571 newborn Large White x Landrace hybrid piglets in a specific-pathogen-free piggery of the University of Queensland was recorded during and after the routine management practices of tail docking, ear notching and teeth clipping. Piglets were randomly assigned to receive 1.0 ml of a 12% sucrose solution (treatment group) or a placebo (1.0 ml of air) administered via syringe in the mouth, 60 s before commencement of one of the management procedures. Behaviours were recorded at the time of the procedure, and then 2 min after completion of the procedure. Piglets that received the sucrose solution did not behave significantly differently from piglets receiving the placebo. Regardless of whether sucrose or placebo was administered, piglets undergoing the routine management procedures showed significantly greater behavioural responses than piglets undergoing no procedure. It was concluded that under commercial conditions, a 12% sucrose solution administered 1 min prior to surgery was not effective in decreasing the behavioural indicators of distress in piglets undergoing routine management procedures. Further research into methods of minimising distress caused to piglets by these procedures is recommended.

A captive group of white-faced capuchins, Cebus capucinus, was presented with four deep litters in simultaneous choice (or preference) tests. A floor covering of ground corn cob, woodchips, wood wool or peat was presented once in each quarter of the group ‘s indoor floor-area for 14 consecutive days, and the layout of the litters was rotated after each such period. The monkeys were observed on 10 days in each period to determine the occurrence of locomotion, foraging, play, and social contact on each of the litters. The ground corn cob was clearly the least attractive floor covering for the monkeys, while peat and wood wool proved to be the most attractive. Most instances of social contact occurred on the peat, due to the occurrence of communal peat-bathing, while wood wool afforded the most play. The provision of different litter types in different areas of the indoor enclosure is a simple means of promoting a greater range of natural activities in captive primates, and probably also in other animals.

The aim of this paper was to develop a protocol to study the interpretation of ambiguous stimuli in cats as a measure of welfare. Ten cats were trained to discriminate between a rewarded position (R) and an unrewarded one (U), as measured by the approach latency for each position. After discrimination, they were exposed to three ambiguous unrewarded positions (R-near, R/U-equidistant, U-near) distributed at intermediate points between R and U. Approach latency increased as increasing the distance from the rewarded position: latencies to approach R and R-near were significantly shorter than for R/U-equidistant, U-near and U. This protocol should be further studied to assess its effectiveness in highlighting differences according to the welfare level of individual cats.

In modern zoos, training should be an integral component of the animal care and management. The benefits of training include the opportunity for positive interactions with caretakers. This study was carried out with a group of vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) housed at the Garda Zoological Park, Italy. Using focal animal sampling, we observed the behaviour performed by all group members from December 2007 to August 2008. The group took part in a training programme to be isolated in a familiar area before the subjects were included in a cognitive study. We collected behavioural data during a pre-training period to assess the social behaviour of the colony and during the training period to investigate the effects of the training programme on the behaviour of individuals. Additionally, a second phase of the study was conducted and training sessions with individual monkeys were video-recorded to determine the behaviour of animals during each training session and to thus confirm that they were suitable for participating in the procedure. Our results suggest that the training programme enriched the daily routine of these captive primates by increasing affiliative behaviours while decreasing agonistic behaviours. Furthermore, there was behavioural response variability among the individuals under the training procedure. However, all the individuals were trained to calmly enter a familiar area and be isolated from other members of the group. In conclusion, our findings highlight the importance of using positive reinforcement training to reduce the tension directly associated with potentially stressful procedures by allowing primates to participate voluntarily in these procedures. In addition, the training was found to be an enrichment tool for vervet monkeys.

A small proportion of greyhounds surplus to the racing industry are entered into specialist re-homing organisations to be re-purposed as pets. Records of 835 greyhounds, from New Zealand Greyhounds as Pets, were used to investigate whether pre-adoption characteristics (age, sex, racing record, reason entered) and management factors (temperament test result, foster and trainer effects) had a bearing on re-homing success, and comparisons were made with shelter studies. Re-homing greyhounds as pets is very successful with 85.5% ultimately successfully re-homed. Only 2.9% fail as a result of failed adoptions and 11.6% fail the initial temperament test and are therefore not considered for adoption. Greyhounds were more likely than shelter dogs to pass an initial temperament test and be adopted, and less likely to be returned after one month. However, adopted greyhounds were just as likely as shelter dogs to be returned after six months. Logistic regression revealed the youngest age group (< 25 months old) were more likely to pass the initial temperament test than older greyhounds. The re-homing success of greyhounds subsequently made available for adoption was not affected by age, but a sex effect was evident with females more likely to be successfully re-homed than males. Whether or not a dog had raced had no significant effect on the likelihood of successful re-homing. Greyhounds passing the temperament test with a basic pass were less likely to be successfully re-homed than greyhounds scoring a higher pass indicative of lower prey drive. Further investigation of the validity and reliability of the temperament test is warranted.

Behavioural diversity may serve as a positive indicator of animal welfare that can be applied in long-term monitoring schemes in managed settings (eg zoos, laboratories, farms). Behavioural diversity is often higher when animals live in stimulating environments and experience positive events. Unfortunately, welfare researchers have not adopted consistent, standardised approaches to measuring behavioural diversity. The goal of this exploratory study was to utilise data from 41 adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed across 16 zoological institutions to examine various models of Shannon's Diversity Index. Specifically, we investigated the impact of: combining versus splitting behaviours, including only positive behaviours, including human interaction, and considering recipient behaviours. We evaluate how the inclusion or exclusion of different behaviours impacts the relationship of behavioural diversity with: (i) concentrations of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (GCM), a common indicator of adrenal activity; (ii) concentrations of immunoglobulin-A (IgA), an indicator of immune function and potential indicator of positive welfare; and (iii) stereotypic behaviour, a validated indicator of poor welfare. Most indices had significant negative relationships with faecal GCM. Animals that express a variety of behaviours from their species-typical repertoire have lower average faecal GCM concentrations and are likely experiencing better welfare. We did not find significant relationships between the behavioural diversity indices and IgA concentrations. Two indices were inversely associated with stereotypic behaviour. Our findings provide additional support for using Shannon's Diversity Index to calculate behavioural diversity as a robust, valid measure of positive welfare. However, future publications must justify the process for including or excluding behaviours from calculations.

Charolais × and Suffolk × Mule lambs of less than one week of age were castrated and tail docked using a standard rubber ring technique. After these procedures, their behaviour was monitored for I h. Their respiration rates and scrotal sac measurements were also recorded. Both breeds of lamb exhibited abnormal behaviour patterns following these procedures. The recumbent behaviour pattern of both breeds was remarkably similar but their standing behaviour differed markedly. The Charolais × lambs were significantly more active and had significantly higher respiration rates compared with the Suffolk × lambs. They also took a greater amount of time to recover to a normal posture. Their abnormal behavioural responses suggested that both breeds of lamb experienced acute pain following castration and tail docking, but the type of behaviour exhibited was breed-dependent. The findings suggest that different breeds of lamb may experience different levels of distress in response to the same husbandry procedure. Alternatively, they may simply reflect a difference in the character and temperament of the breeds studied.

The objective of this project was to collect scientific data to assist in the development of guidelines for the humane relocation of threatened and endangered arboreal non-human primate species. A troop of 31 Lowland Sykes monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis albotorquatus) was habituated to fruit bait for capture in a village and relocation to a previously selected suitable site in a protected forest reserve approximately 30 km away. Sixty-five percent (n = 20) of the animals were captured and relocated. This subgroup comprised one adult male, eight adult females, two subadult females, three juvenile males, four juvenile females and two infant males. Although the relocated group originated from one single group, post-translocation telemetry signals demonstrated that it split into two groups, which established themselves approximately 2–4 km apart in their new territory; the adult male eventually became solitary. The factors of importance for the successful capture and relocation of forest primates were found to include: proper understanding of troop home-range utilisation and of social bond organisation within the troop, method and period of habituation, method of release, suitability of the new habitat with respect to the ecological niche requirements of the species in question, and the period of post-relocation monitoring.

The goals of this paper are to: define terms relevant to industrially induced, but unintentional, trauma to whales; place the issue in a context of the prevalence of such mortalities in North American east coast waters; examine pertinent case studies; summarise the resultant pathobiology; and from this infer likely welfare concerns.

There are conflicting views about the humaneness of the handbow as a recreational hunting method for deer. Some claim that it is the most humane hunting method, whilst others report higher wounding rates and crippling losses than with the rifle. This commentary summarises the factors affecting the likelihood of a quick death, the types of equipment commonly used, the vital target areas, the influence of blood loss on blood pressure and brain function and the prevalence of wounding during routine bowhunting. Some requirements in Bowhunters Association Codes of Conduct are also described. It is concluded that where bowhunting is allowed, Codes of Conduct should emphasise the hunters' responsibility to track and despatch injured animals, and adherence to the Codes should be encouraged, if not enforced.

Organic farming is based on the premise that animal welfare is safeguarded primarily through good management; only when this fails are veterinary medicines used to intervene. As this premise is frequently quoted in marketing strategies, there is a need to assess the efficacy of this approach to reassure consumers. To move towards this assessment, a survey was conducted between August 1999 and April 2002 on nine organic pig farms located predominantly in the South West of England. This combined direct measurements of animals and facilities with structured questions to staff. The mean herd size (± standard error of mean) was 212 ± 74 sows, with all progeny being reared outdoors from farrowing to finish. The herds had been in existence for an average of 37 ± 7.0 months. Mange and lice were the highest-ranking current health concerns, and post-mortem report of endoparasitism was the highest-ranking historical health concern chosen by producers from a list pre-written by the experimenters. The main welfare issues reported by the primary stockperson were related to keeping stock clean and dry during periods of high rainfall, managing porcine dermatitis and nephropathy syndrome (PDNS) and postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) within their herd, and recruiting and retaining good quality personnel. Facility assessment indicated good living conditions, with the exception of some wet paddocks during winter. Sow condition scores were not significantly different from accepted target values during pregnancy, at farrowing, or at weaning. Levels of lameness, skin damage and cleanliness did not cause concern in any class of stock.