Index

doi:10.1017/9781108919234.022

Index

Aaronson, Susan A., 110, 241

Accenture, 136

accountability frameworks, 198

adaptive governance, 18

Administrative Measures on Internet Information Services, 256–258

Administrative Rules on International Networking Entry and Exit Gateways for Computer Information Networks, 254

AEOs. See authorized economic operators

Africa, 91–92

Agency for the Protection of Data of Inhabitants (PRODHAB) (Costa Rica), 297–298

Agreement on Rules of Origin (WTO), 139–140

Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), 85, 107–108, 139

Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), 85, 140, 160, 166–168, 176–178, 187–188, 349

Article 10.2, 170

release of goods and, 191

three-step test, 173–176

AI. See Artificial Intelligence

algorithms, 38–39, 108–109, 117, 131–132, 191–192, 308

data-processing, 198

decision-making, 233–234

DL and, 163

law enforcement and, 192

proprietary, 212–213

Alibaba, 246–247, 266, 341–342

Amazon, 1–2, 168, 268, 345–346

anonymization, 13–14, 206

ANTAI. See National Authority of Transparency and Access to Information

anti-counterfeiting technologies, 186–187

APEC. See Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

APL Ltd., 136

Apple, 1–2, 69–70

applications, 24

Argentina, 140–141

Argentina–Chile FTA, 273, 285, 289–290, 299–300

Artificial Intelligence (AI), 2–4, 12–13, 99, 340

accumulation of large data sets to train, 215

applications of, 212–213, 246–247

Committee on Regional Trade Agreements and, 164–165

concentration of control over, 214

cross-border data flows and, 224–225

cross-border digital trade and, 215–224

cross-border provision of, 227–228

cross-border trade in, 240–241

customers of, 352–353

decision-making based on, 118

defining, 160–164

designed for different environments, 118–119

ethics of, 355–356

functional applications, 182, 192

governance, 231–232, 241–242

impact of, 160

increased use of, 89

industry, 74–75

insurance coverage and, 125–127

IP enforcement and, 178–181

Kangaroo Problem of, 117–119

limits in governing, 230

medical diagnosis and, 122–125

negotiations on issues related to, 214–215

patents and, 163

personal and non-personal data in context of, 225–227

regulation of, 116–117, 127

rise of, 145–146

supply chain, 346

Text and Data Mining (TDM) and, 161

trade law and, 119–122

value of, 227

WTO and, 119–121

ASEAN. See Association of Southeast Asian Nations

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), 87, 283–284, 299, 309

Cross-Border Privacy Rules, 284

Privacy Framework, 37–38

Privacy Principles of, 356

Ask.com, 69–70

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 352

augmented reality, 197

Austin, Lisa, 347

Australia, 26–27, 33, 52–53, 220. See also specific agreements

consumer protection and, 56–58

Australia–Chile FTA, 287

Australian Productivity Commission, 348

Australia–Peru FTA, 273

authority, 178–179

authorized economic operators (AEOs), 138

automated decision-making, 207–208, 327–328

automation, 133–134, 178–181

of border enforcement, 191–192

concerns arising from, 190–191

estimation of potential losses and damages, 184

of procedures, 191

semi-automated border controls, 181–182

B2C e-commerce, 213–214

Bahrain, 33

Baidu, 1–2, 258–259

Barlow, John Perry, 235–236

Bauer, M., 71

Berne Convention, 167–168, 173–174

Bext360, 139

BGI Group, 259–260

big data, 345–346

age of, 200–201, 242

analytics, 222–223

applications of, 246–247

Committee on Regional Trade Agreements and, 164–165

copyright protection and, 169–170

corpora of, 162, 166–170, 176

customs control and, 183–185

data colonialism and, 228–229

defining, 160–164

IP and, 166–170

market of, 212–213

outputs of processing corpora, 162

patents and, 163

personally identifiable information and, 200

potential threats of, 320–321

privacy and, 205

WTO and, 164–166

Bignami, Francesca, 236

Binding Corporate Rule, 86–87

bindingness, 56

biometric screening, 181–182

Bipartisan Trade Promotion Authority Act, 268–269

Bitcoin, 128

blockchain, 128, 132, 134–136, 185

applications of, 144–145

cross-border data flows and, 156

cybersecurity and, 145–146

data localization and, 146

data protection and, 148–151

data sovereignty and, 147

enforcement issues with, 144–145

GDPR and, 148–151

international trade and, 129, 134, 137, 151, 156, 158

IP and, 140

key features of, 128–131, 133–134, 141

legal recognition of transactions, 142–144, 152

legal status of, 144

nature of, 134

paperless trade and, 136–137

personal data and, 149

polycentric governance and, 155–156

privacy and, 147

regulatory considerations around, 141, 152–154

traceability and transparency features of, 139

transnational nature of, 154, 158

types of platforms, 130–132

United States and, 143–144

WTO and, 128, 137–141, 156, 158

Blockchain Center, 157

Blockchain Interoperability Alliance, 155–156

Blockchain Knowledge Center, 157

Blockchain Observatory Forum, 153

Blockchain Research Institute, 155–156

Blockpharma, 140–141

Blockverify, 140–141

Bolero, 137

border enforcement, 191–192

Boston Consulting Group, 135–136

Brandeis, Louis, 195–196

Brazil, 70–71, 140–141, 165–166. See also specific agreements

Brazil–Chile FTA, 273, 290

Breznitz, Dan, 348

Buenos Aires Ministerial Conference, 142

business trust

enabling, 107–109

Buterin, Vitalik, 133

Buxbaum, Hannah, 237

Bygrave, Lee, 236

CAC. See Cyberspace Administration of China

Cadena, 138

California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA), 196–197, 237

Cambridge Analytica scandal, 197–198

Canada, 51–53, 279, 305–307, 314–315. See also specific agreements

data regulation and, 312

PIPEDA and, 307

Canada–Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement, 29–30, 272, 275, 282–283, 285–286

Canada–Honduras FTA, 26

Canada–Korea FTA, 26

Canada–Peru FTA, 26, 276–277

Castells, Manuel, 233–234

Catalini, Christian, 135

CCP. See Chinese Communist Party

CCPA. See California Consumer Privacy Act

CEFTA. See Central European Free Trade Agreement

censorship, 12–13, 262–263, 357–358

central actors, 51–55

Central America–Mexico FTA, 26

Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA), 48–51

Central Product Classification (CPC), 122–124

centralization, 178–179, 181

CEPA. See Closer Economic Partnership Agreement

CERNET. See China Education and Research Network

CETA. See Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement

Charnovitz, Steve, 121–122

Charter of Fundamental Rights (EU), 222

Chile, 21–23, 33, 271–272, 291–293, 299. See also specific agreements

Chile–EU Association Agreement, 272

Chile–Uruguay FTA, 28, 273, 290

Chile–US FTA, 272

China, 1–2, 12–13, 66, 256, 264, 312–313, 352. See also specific agreements

censorship and, 262–263

cross-border data flows and, 264–265

Cybersecurity Law, 246, 251–252, 257–261

data regulation in, 256–263

growth of Internet in, 247–248, 266–267

guarded position of, 265

Internet regulation in, 246–247, 252–254, 260–261

National Security Law, 251

privacy and, 87

regulatory landscape in, 247–252

WTO and, 254–255

Zimbabwe and, 353–354

China – Audiovisual Products, 19, 120–121

China Education and Research Network (CERNET), 246–247, 254

China – Electronic Payments, 124

China Golden Bridge Network (CHINAGBNET), 254

China Mobile, 254

China Public Computer Network (CHINANET), 254

China – Publications and Audiovisual, 265

China Science and Technology Network (CSTNET), 254

CHINAGBNET. See China Golden Bridge Network

China–Korea Free Trade Agreement, 164–165

CHINANET. See China Public Computer Network

Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 248–250

Politburo of, 250–251

Chinese Penal Code, 257–258

Christensen, Lauritz, 70

Citron, Danielle K., 191–192

Ciuriak, Dan, 302–303

civil law, 317

civil society, 155–158, 219–220, 294, 350, 356

CJEU. See Court of Justice of European Union

Clarifying Lawful Overseas Use of Data (CLOUD) Act, 90–91

Closer Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA), 21

CLOUD. See Clarifying Lawful Overseas Use of Data Act

cloud computing services, 84

CloudWalk, 353–354

CNIL. See French National Commission on Informatics and Liberty

Cohen, Julie, 234–235

Colombia, 33, 48–49, 271–272, 296–297. See also specific agreements

Colombia–Costa Rica FTA, 26

Colombia–EU–Peru FTA, 32–33, 285

Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, 164–165

communication technology, 201–202

Communications Decency Act, US, 38–39

competition law, 334–335

Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), 20, 24–25, 28, 34–37, 40, 55–56, 112, 216–217, 238–239, 273

Canada and, 302, 305–307, 312, 314–315

chapter 14 of, 314

data flows and, 304–307

data localization and, 307–308

e-commerce and, 303–304

privacy and, 351

source code and, 308

United States and, 351

USMCA difference with, 309–312

Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), 55–56

compulsory licenses, 335–336

computational processing power, 178–179

computer vision, 182

conducive regulatory environment, 151–152, 157–158

confidentiality, 147

consent, 326–328

constitutional rights, 347–348

Consumer Privacy Bill of Rights Act, 196–197, 202

consumer protection, 36–37, 47, 61

Australia and, 56–58

deficiency of binding international frameworks on, 110

digital trade and, 96

Latin America and, 285–287

PTAs and, 107, 285–287

Singapore and, 56–58

WTO and, 107

consumer rights, 89–90, 345

consumer trust enhancing measures, 106–107

containerized cargo, 188–189

content, 24

content regulation, 256–260

control rights, 327–328

Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts (2005), 157–158

coordination costs, 135–136

Copyright Act (US), 171–172

copyright protection, 169–170

Costa Rica, 48–49, 279, 297–298

Couldry, Nick, 228–229

Council for Trade in Goods, 349–350

Council for Trade in Services, 124–125, 349–350

Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (US), 175

Court of Justice of European Union (CJEU), 36, 168–170, 188–189, 218–219

CPC. See Central Product Classification

CPTPP. See Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership

Creative Passport, 140–141

critical infrastructure, 35–36, 305

Cross-Border Privacy Rules System (APEC), 284

cryptocurrency, 128

cryptographic techniques, 130

CSTNET. See China Science and Technology Network

Cultural Revolution, 251

customs control, 181–183

big data and, 183–185

IoT and, 186

customs duties, 109, 275, 277–278, 304

cybercrimes, 106

cybersecurity, 20–21, 36–37, 83–84, 86, 122, 223–224, 251–252, 356–357

blockchain and, 145–146

cross-border data flows and, 87–88

data regulation and, 109–110

deficiency of binding international frameworks on, 110

GATS and, 94–96

international cooperation on, 103–104

regulatory coordination on, 98

standards, 103–104

Cybersecurity Law (China), 246, 251–252, 257–261

Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), 248–252, 259–261, 265–266

cyberstalking, 106

cyber warfare, 245–246

data, free movement of, 24–25, 46–47

with trust, 234

data, new uses for, 345–348

data, trade and, 344–345

data access rights, 329–338

for businesses, 332–333

compulsory licenses and, 335–336

data collection, 3–4, 12, 341

data colonialism, 197–198, 228–229

data controllers, 149–150

data flows, 15, 18–19, 24–25, 53, 231, 288–289, 316–317

CPTPP and, 304–307

cross-border, 63, 84, 92, 145–146, 241

access to, 344

AI and, 224–225

blockchain and, 156

China and, 264–265

cybersecurity and, 87–88

data localization and, 101–103

data regulation and, 302–303

distortion of, 356–359

data localization, 101–103

hindering, 83–84

limitations of, 226–227

restriction of, 86, 88, 223–224

EU and, 220

governance of, 214–216, 230, 232–233

liberalization of, 232, 238–239, 241–242

non-trade dimensions of, 359

political gains from, 214

privacy and, 86–87

regulating barriers to, 351–352

rules regarding, 343, 349–354

sub-index on, 79–80

embedded liberalism and, 45–46

ensuring free, 141

evolution of, 49

GDPR and, 320, 337–339

Latin America PTAs and, 270–273

network of PTAs regulating, 54

of personal data, 318–319, 325–326

policies on, 78

provisions in Latin American PTAs, 287–288

provisions on, 288–289, 299

PTAs and, 24–25, 43–44, 58–60, 102, 288–289, 298

regulation of, 48–49, 265, 356–357

regulatory coordination on, 98

regulatory issues pertaining to, 84

regulatory models on, 52–53

rules on, 24, 26–27

trade-related aspects of, 93

US–South Korea FTA and, 34–35

WTO and, 98, 110–112

data governance, 3–5, 92

future-oriented models for, 6

data innovation, 28–29

data localization, 28, 34–35, 37, 145–146, 223–224, 263, 265–266

blockchain and, 146

CPTPP and, 307–308

cross-border data flows and, 101–103

e-commerce and, 357–358

provisions on, 311

PTAs and, 28, 290

requirements for, 287–288, 305

data ownership, 320–325, 338

data policies, 65–66, 71

cross-border, 65–66, 72

domestic, 65–66, 72

informed dialogue on, 77–78

for trade, 76–77

data pollution, 203

data portability, 327–328, 331, 338–339

data privacy. See privacy

Data Privacy Impact Assessment (DPIA), 65

data processing, 12, 70, 196–197

restrictions on, 327–328

data protection, 28–33, 105, 198, 234

blockchain and, 148–151

EU and, 230

GDPR and, 299–300

laws, 201–202

mechanisms, 40

national, 314

officials, 356

PTAs and, 30–31

Data Protection Authority (DPA), 291–293

Data Protection Officer (DPO), 65

data protectionism, 3–4, 358–359

cost of, 12–13, 65–69

WTO and, 76–78

data realms, 349–354

data regulation, 100–102, 109–112

Canada, 312

China, 256–261, 263

constraints on, 302

cross-border data flows and, 302–303

main players in, 265

standards in, 107

data restrictive measures, 69, 76, 89–90, 92–93

Data Restrictiveness Index, 65–68, 75

data retention, 80–81

data sovereignty, 147, 200

data subject’s rights, 327–328

data territoriality, 84

data transfer, 112

data trusts, 229

Database Directive (EU), 168–170

data-driven

economy, 85, 341–342, 353–354, 356–357

growth, 111

innovation, 3

services, 214–215, 254

data-industrial complex, 199–200

data-intense sectors, 73

data-sharing agreements, 205

decentralization, 133, 152–153

‘Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace’ (Barlow), 235–236

Declaration on Global Electronic Commerce, 42, 261

deep learning (DL), 161–162

algorithms, 163

high value outputs of, 162

de-identification, 208–209

DEPA. See Digital Economy Partnership Agreement

Department of Agriculture, 138–139

depth indicator for trade agreement provisions, 49–51, 59

descriptive risk rating, 183–184

developing countries, 87, 91–92, 109–111, 353

DGCE. See General Directorate of Electronic Commerce (Panama)

Digital Economy Partnership Agreement (DEPA), 5–6, 8, 21–23, 40–41, 299

digital flows, 35–36

digital goods and services, 326–327

digital identity, 40–41

digital industrial policy, 91–92, 97

digital innovation, 98, 107–109

digital intelligence, 212–213

Digital Millennium Privacy Act, 203

digital natives, 12

digital platforms, 40, 213–214, 234–236, 238

digital protectionism, 165, 215–216

digital services, 84, 89–90, 108

digital single market, 316–317, 323–324, 336–337

Digital Single Market Strategy (EU), 316, 318–320, 325, 337–339

digital sovereignty, 230

digital technologies, 128, 141, 199, 201, 215, 231–234, 268

concentration of, 228

impact of, 5–6

limited availability of, 222–223

rise of, 145–146

security issues related to, 100

trade regulation and, 6

digital tracking, 199

digital trade, 15, 61, 74–76, 215–216

chapter in USMCA, 312–313

consumer protection and, 96

costs for, 78–79

cross-border, 215–224

desirable baseline for, 232

development-related concerns in, 109–110

e-commerce and, 342

EU and, 214–224, 350–352

governance and, 33–34, 48

negotiations on, 213–214

personal data/personal information and, 212

personal information and, 105

provisions in PTAs, 20–23, 28–29, 43–44, 46, 48–49, 51–53, 61, 102–104, 109–110, 215–216, 270–273, 277–278, 285–288, 299–300, 302

United States and, 34, 39–40, 74, 215–216, 238–239, 263, 312–313, 358–359

WTO and, 33–34, 36, 43–44, 85, 100, 111–112, 215–217, 239–240, 275, 301–302, 307–308, 315, 349

Digital Trade Agenda (US), 268–269

Digital Trade Estimates (DTE), 65–66, 78

Digital Trade Restrictiveness Index (DTRI), 58–61

digital trade rules

evolution of, 40–41

PTAs as preferred venue for, 40

digital trust, 98, 101

digitalization, 181–183, 192

digitalization of services, 86–87

digitization, 3, 11

disinformation, 355–356, 359

dispute settlement, 17, 160, 174, 239–240, 286–287, 312

distributed denial of service attacks, 106

distributed ledger technology (DLT), 131–132

law enforcement and, 192

letters of credit and, 135–136

localization of traded goods and, 185–187

distributed ledgers, 129–132

DL. See deep learning

DLT. See distributed ledger technology

domestic security, 356–357

domestic use of data, 76, 80–82

DPA. See Data Protection Authority

DPIA. See Data Privacy Impact Assessment

DPO. See Data Protection Officer

DTA. See US–Japan Digital Trade Agreement

DTE. See Digital Trade Estimates

DTRI. See Digital Trade Restrictiveness Index

EAEU. See Eurasian Economic Union

ECIPE. See European Center for International Political Economy

e-commerce, 20–21, 26–27, 48, 53, 55–56, 105–106, 239–240, 274–275

B2C, 213–214

CPTPP and, 303–304

cross-border transactions, 89

data localization and, 357–358

data-driven services and, 215

digital trade and, 342

IoT and, 268

Latin American countries’ legal frameworks on, 298

Latin American PTAs and, 273–274

legal framework of, 291

network of PTAs regulating, 54

PTAs and, 40, 55, 105, 298

regulation of, 48–49, 268–269

regulatory convergence in, 270–273

regulatory models on, 52–53

users of, 283

USMCA and, 273, 303–304

WTO and, 43, 146, 216–217

WTO Plurilateral Negotiations on Trade-Related Aspects of Electronic Commerce, 312–314

economic globalization, 42

economic growth, 215, 344

data as driver of, 1–2

Economic Partnership Agreement with Japan (Japan–EU EPA), 219–220

The Economist (magazine), 130, 345–346

eCustoms Decision (EU), 182–183

e-documents, 141–144, 152, 156

EDPS. See European Data Protection Supervisor

EEA See European Economic Area

EFTA See European Free Trade Association

electronic authentication, 278–281

Electronic Commerce Law (Colombia), 296

electronic signatures, 46–47, 141–144, 152, 156, 263

electronic transmissions, 109

embedded liberalism, 45–46

e-Privacy Directive, 89–90

erasure/right to erasure, 149, 327–328, 338

EssDocs, 137, 139–140

Ethereum, 133

eTradeConnect, 135–136

EU. See European Union

EU–Japan EPA, 26–27

EU–Japan Free Trade Agreement, 351

EU–Mexico Global Agreement, 26–27, 288–289

Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), 53–55

European Blockchain Partnership, 154

European Center for International Political Economy (ECIPE), 58–61, 65–66, 78

European Commission, 138, 214, 222–223, 226–227, 318–319, 332–333, 351–352

European Copyright Society, 172–173

European Data Protection Supervisor (EDPS), 227–228

European Economic Area (EEA), 218–220

European Free Trade Association (EFTA), 48–49

European Strategy for Data 2020, 222–223

European Union (EU), 14, 20–21, 26–27, 38, 52–53, 212–213, 222–223, 312–313. See also specific agreements

Blockchain Observatory Forum, 153

Charter of Fundamental Rights, 222

cross-border data flows and, 220

data protection and, 105, 230

Database Directive, 168–170

Digital Single Market Strategy, 34, 316, 318–320, 325, 337–339

digital trade and, 218–219

digital trade war, 358–359

eCustoms Decision, 182–183

EU–US Privacy Shield, 104–105, 149–150

EU–US Safe Harbor Agreement, 36

Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and, 24–25, 105, 219–220, 224, 312–313, 351–352

Osaka Declaration on the Digital Economy and, 301–302

personal data in, 148

policymakers in, 355–356

Public Sector Information Directive, 333–334

sui generis right in databases in, 169–170

Trade Secrets Directive, 335–336

EU–US Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP), 238–239

extraterritorial digital data, 90, 97–98

Facebook, 1–2, 117, 147, 168, 268, 345–346

facial recognition, 181–182, 197

fair, reasonable, and non-discriminatory terms (FRAND), 335–336

FCA. See Financial Conduct Authority

Federal Trade Commission, 209–210

Ferracane, Martina F., 65–66, 71–72, 75–76, 302–303

Financial Conduct Authority (FCA), 153–154

financial institutions, 125

financial intermediation, 135

financial services, 25, 31–32, 125

5G, 1–2

flexibility indicator for trade agreement provisions, 47, 51–52, 143–144

Football Dataco, 168

Fourth Industrial Revolution, 3, 165

France, 66, 170–171

FRAND. See fair, reasonable, and non-discriminatory terms

Free Trade Agreements (FTAs), 21, 183, 216–217, 261, 307–308. See also specific FTAs

freedom of expression, 63–64

freedom of speech, 248

French National Commission on Informatics and Liberty (CNIL), 149–151

Freund, C., 74

FTAs. See Free Trade Agreements

fundamental rights, 4–5, 13–14, 40, 214, 218–219, 222–224, 230, 241, 316–317, 320–322

G7, 234

G20, 212–213, 234, 301–302

GAFA. See Google, Apple, Facebook, and Amazon

Gans, J. S., 135

Gasser, Urs, 8

GATS. See General Agreement on Trade in Services

GATT 1994. See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994

GDP. See Gross Domestic Product

GDPR. See General Data Protection Regulation

Geiger, Christophe, 170

Geist, Michael, 307

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 (GATT 1994), 85

General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), 16–17, 20–21, 85, 92, 307–308, 349

Article VI, 110

Article VII, 106

Article XIV, 126

Article XIV(c)(ii), 217, 220

Article XVIII, 110

Article XX, 176

characteristics of, 119–121

commitments, 17–18, 92–93, 110–111, 122, 239–240

cybersecurity and, 94–96

digital industrial policy and, 97

existing architecture of, 111

general exception under, 16–17, 92–93, 111, 217, 220, 222, 239–240, 265, 307–312, 356–357

IMF and, 100–101

privacy and, 16–17, 93–94, 105–106, 220–222

public interest regulation and, 239–240

General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), 14, 26–27, 61, 70, 86–87, 125, 147, 196–197, 237, 299–300

access granted by, 338–339

application of, 337

blockchain and, 148–151

data flows and, 26–27, 86–87, 219–220, 224–225, 239–240, 320, 337–339

data subjects’ rights and, 327–328

enactment of, 200

European Commission and, 319, 351

ownership as control and, 325, 338

personal data and, 149–150, 219–220, 317, 329–332

privacy and, 246

scope of, 218–219

General Directorate of Electronic Commerce (DGCE) (Panama), 294–295

General Directorate of Transparency, Access to Public Information and Protection of Personal Data (NDPA) (Peru), 294

German Copyright Act, 170–171

German Ethics Commission, 229

German Ministry of Economic Affairs, 229

Germany, 66, 126

Global Financial Innovation Network (GFIN), 153–154

global public goods, 8

global regulation, 45

Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP), 73

Global Trade and Blockchain Forum (WTO), 157

globalization, 42, 137, 158, 231, 233–234, 348

Goldfarb, A., 74–75

Google, 1–2, 116, 168, 263–264, 268, 341–342, 345–346

Google, Apple, Facebook, and Amazon (GAFA), 117

Google Books, 172, 175

governance toolkits, 2–3

Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 69

long-run growth of, 71–72

total increased world, 73

Grotius, Hugo, 235–236

GTAP. See Global Trade Analysis Project

Guide on the Determination of Critical Information Infrastructure, 259–260

Guidelines for the Protection of Personal Information and Transborder Data Flows, 353

GVC. See value chains

Habeas Data Law (Colombia), 296

hacking, 87–88, 106, 162, 330

hardware regulation, 252–255

Harvard University Privacy Tools Project, 208

hate speech, 117

Heap, Imogen, 140–141

Hedera Hashgraph, 132

Heraclitus, 231

Hikvision, 116

Hong Kong Monetary Authority, 154

Hong Kong–New Zealand FTA, 26

Hugenholtz, Bernt, 169–170

human rights, 45–46, 77, 97–98, 231–235, 237, 239–241, 357–358

digital, 242

domestic, 238

international economic law, 232

respect for, 241

Hyperledger Fabric, 132–133

Hyperledger Project, 132–133

Hyperledger Sawtooth, 131–132

IBM, 132–133, 135

ICANN. See Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers

ICC. See International Chamber of Commerce

ICO. See Initial Coin Offerings

ICT. See information and communication technology

identity theft, 106

IETF. See Internet Engineering Task Force

ILO. See International Labour Organization

IMF. See International Monetary Fund

Implementation of the Internet Power Strategy, 266–267

Implementation Rules for the Provisional Regulations (Implementation Rules), 252–256

Import Licensing Agreement, 138–139

INATBA. See International Association for Trusted Blockchain Applications

India, 90–92, 268–269

individual rights frameworks, 45–47, 214–215, 224–230, 325–326, 331, 338

Indonesia, 26–27, 92, 220

information and communication technology (ICT), 42, 46, 201–202

information privacy. See privacy

information processing. See data processing

information technology (IT), 69, 130–131, 140–141, 201–202, 223–224

Information Technology Agreement (ITA), 15–16, 349

informational autonomy, 325–326, 338–339

infrastructure, 222–224, 227, 233–234, 251, 347

cloud-based, 226–227

complementary policies and, 343

critical, 35–36, 259–260, 281, 305, 314–315

cybersecurity and, 87–88

data as form of, 348

data economy and, 212–213

development of, 164

regulation of, 24

Initial Coin Offerings (ICO), 153

Instagram, 116, 147

Institute for Computer Science of China’s State Commission of Machine Industry, 246–247

insurance, 39–40, 74–76, 116–118, 120–121

coverage, 125–127

obligations, 294

intellectual property (IP)/intellectual property rights (IPRs), 15, 20–21, 75, 91–92, 166, 177–178, 184–185, 234, 273

AI and enforcement of, 178–181

big data and, 166–170

blockchain and, 140

compulsory licenses and, 335–336

customs surveillance of, 177–178

enforcement, 178–179, 190–191

goods protected by, 186–188

infringement of, 140–141, 188–189

offices, 190

protection of, 161–162, 176, 178–179, 189–190

territoriality of IP protection, 187–188

Inter-American Development Bank, 138

Inter-American Juridical Committee, 299

Interim Regulations on Electronic Publications, 257

International Association for Trusted Blockchain Applications (INATBA), 155–156

International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), 138, 145, 157

International Conference of Data Protection and Privacy Commissioners, 106

International Consumer Protection Enforcement Network, 106

International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT), 99

International Labour Organization (ILO), 348

International Monetary Fund (IMF), 100–101

International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 107–108, 143

international regulatory cooperation, 111–112

international relations, 44

international rule-making, 8

International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 143

international trade, 128

blockchain and, 129, 134, 137, 151, 156, 158

Internet

China, growth of, 247–248, 260–261, 266–267

China, regulation of, 246–247, 252–254

fragmentation of, 77

governance, 5–6, 47, 77, 100, 155, 232, 235–236, 238–239, 241, 248–250, 260–261, 354

history of, 152

regulation of, 265–266

regulatory fragmentation, 144, 146, 152–153

stakeholders and, 180

of value, 137

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 155

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), 107–108

Internet Explorer, 268

Internet of Things (IoT), 12–13, 87–88, 99, 165, 197, 341

customs control and, 186

e-commerce and, 268

Internet service providers (ISPs), 253–254

interoperability, 33–34, 89, 99–100, 106, 154, 203–206, 208–209, 291, 304, 354

IoT. See Internet of Things

Ireland, 131–132

ISO. See International Organization for Standardization

ISPs. See Internet service providers

IT. See information technology

ITA. See Information Technology Agreement

ITU. See International Telecommunication Union

Japan, 48–49, 165, 171, 183, 234. See also specific agreements

Japan–EU EPA. See Economic Partnership Agreement with Japan

Japan–Mongolia FTA, 26, 28

Japan–Thailand PTA, 49–51

Joint Statement Initiative on Electronic Commerce (WTO), 19–20, 26, 77, 142, 156, 158, 266, 268–269, 301–302

Joint Statement on Global Electronic Commerce, 29–30, 272

Jordan, 21

Jordan–US FTA Joint Statement on Electronic Commerce, 29–30

Jordan–US PTA, 43–44

Kelsey, Jane, 239–240

Korea–Peru FTA, 26

Korea–US PTA, 43–44

Kuehne + Nagel, 136

labour, 350

capital and, 302–303, 347

data, 346

invisible, 346

market, 318

productivity, 348

Latin America/Latin American countries (LACs), 53, 269–270, 273, 298–299

consumer protection and, 285–287

customs duties and, 277–278

data flows and, 288–289

data localization and, 290

e-commerce and, 273–274

electronic authentication and, 278–281

personal data and, 281–282

privacy and, 282–285, 291

PTAs and, 270–274, 287–288

source code and, 281

law enforcement, 63, 90–91, 127, 145–146, 179–180, 192, 356–357

layered structure of the Internet, 24

LDCs. See least-developed countries

Leading Group for Information Technology Advancement, 252–253

League of Nations, 348

least-developed countries (LDCs), 109–112

Leblond, Patrick, 110, 358–359

Lee, Kai-Fu, 353

legal harmonization, 180–181, 332–333

legal pluralism, 100

legal transplants, 118–119

Leistner, Matthias, 169–170

Leong, Lily, 115–116

letters of credit, 135–136, 145

Leviathan Security Group, 70–71

Li Keqiang, 250–251

liberalization, 232, 238–239, 241–242

libertarianism, 234–235

lie detection, 181–182

LinkedIn, 1–2

Linux Foundation, 132–133

local companies, 69–73, 76

Lupton, Deborah, 233–234

machine learning (ML), 161, 222–223, 233–234

applications of, 246–247

high value outputs of, 162

Macron, Emmanuel, 117

Maersk, 134–135

Malmstrӧm, Cecilia, 64–65

Malta, 143–144

manufacturing sector, 101–102

Manyika, James, 73

‘Mare Liberum’ (Grotius), 235–236

market access commitments, 125–126, 305

market capitalization, 212–214

market failure, 321–322

Marrakesh Agreement, 268

mass communication, 195–196

mass-market software, 305

Mattoo, Aaditiya, 75, 104–105

McKinsey Global Institute, 233–234, 341–342

McLean, Malcolm, 134

Measures for Security Protection Administration of the International Networking of Computer Information Networks, 255–258

medical diagnosis, 122–125

MEI. See Ministry of Electronic Industry

Mejias, U. A., 228–229

Meltzer, Joshua P., 75, 104–105

Mexico, 52–53

Mexico–Panama FTA, 289, 298–299

MFN See most-favoured nation

Microsoft, 1–2, 69–71

MII See Ministry of Information Industry

MIIT See Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Ministry of Electronic Industry (MEI) (China), 248–249, 254

Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) (China), 248–249, 256, 260–261

Ministry of Information Industry (MII) (China), 248–249

Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (MPT) (China), 248–249, 254

Ministry of Public Security (MPS) (China), 248–249, 260–261

Ministry of Science and Technology (China), 259–260

Mishra, Neha, 307–308

Mitchell, Andrew, 307–308

ML. See machine learning

MLATs. See Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties

Model Law on Electronic Commerce (UNCITRAL), 107, 157–158

Model Law on Electronic Transferable Records (UNCITRAL), 142–143, 157–158

monetization of data, 355

Mongolia, 49–52

Morocco, 33

most-favoured nation (MFN), 15–16, 33–34, 47, 275–277

MPS. See Ministry of Public Security

MPT. See Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications

Multi-annual Strategic Plan (EU), 182–183

multilateral institutions, 100–101, 106–107

multinational companies, 11, 96

Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties (MLATs), 90–91, 97–98

mutual recognition, 93–94, 138

Article VII GATS and, 99, 106

authentication technologies and, 278–281

mechanisms, 104–106

Myanmar, 118–119

NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement; United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement

Naik, Ravi, 347–348

NASSCOM-DSCI, 75

National Authority of Transparency and Access to Information (ANTAI) (Panama), 295

National Informatization Leading Group, 248–249

National Infrastructure Commission (UK), 347

National Institute of Standards (NIST) (US), 341

national interests, 11, 87–88

National Network Security Inspection Operation Manual, 259–260

National People’s Congress (NPC) (China), 248

National Register of Data Bases (NRDB) (Colombia), 296–297

National Security Law (China), 251

national treatment (NT), 15–16, 92–93, 97, 122–125, 275–277

natural language processing, 182–184

NDPA. See General Directorate of Transparency, Access to Public Information and Protection of Personal Data

Netflix, 263–264

Netscape Navigator, 268

network neutrality, 36–37

New Zealand, 21–23, 26–27, 220

Nigeria, 92

NIST. See National Institute of Standards

non-discrimination, 15–16, 37, 47, 56–58, 275–276, 315

non-personal data, 13–14, 225–227, 319, 325, 330, 332

Nordic-Baltic Region, 212–213

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 34, 302, 351

NPC. See National People’s Congress

NRDB. See National Register of Data Bases

NT. See national treatment

Nvidia AI, 116

OAS. See Organization of American States

OECD. See Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada (OPC), 307

oil and gas companies, 212

Okazaki, Y., 188–189

Oman, 33

OPC. See Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada

Open Government Partnership, 355–356

Opinions on Strengthening and Improving Internet Administration, 248–249

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 11, 104–105, 157, 234, 309, 332–333, 353–354

Guidelines on Transborder Flows of Personal Data, 31

Privacy Guidelines, 29–30, 196–197

Privacy Principles of, 356

Recommendation of the Council Concerning Guidelines Governing the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data, 37–38, 283–284

Organization of American States (OAS), 299

Osaka Declaration on the Digital Economy, 234, 301–302

ownership as control, 325–326, 328–329, 338

Pacific Alliance Additional Protocol (PAAP), 27–28, 273, 275–276, 286–287, 289

PAFTA See Peru-Australia Free Trade Agreement

Pakistan, 263–264

Panama, 48–49, 271–272, 289, 294–295, 298–299

Panama–US PTA, 48–49

paperless trade, 46–47, 136–137

patents, 163–164

path dependency, 300

payment service providers, 90

PDLP. See Personal Data Protection Law

personal data, 13–14, 31–33, 148

access to, 329–330

AI and, 225–227

blockchain and, 149

collection and use of, 196–197

constitutional rights and, 347–348

cross-border transfers of, 225

digital trade and, 105, 212

flow of, 318–319, 325–326

GDPR and, 149–150, 219–220, 317, 329–332

lack of control over, 319

ownership as control over, 328–329

privacy of, 245–246

processing of, 328, 338

property rights in, 323–325

protection of, 263

safeguards, 322

WTO and, 104–105

Personal Data Protection Law (PDLP) (Peru), 294

personal information. See personal data

Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) (Canada), 307

Peru, 33, 271–272, 293–294. See also specific agreements

Peru–Australia Free Trade Agreement (PAFTA), 102, 105–106

Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrich, 234–235

PETs. See Privacy-Enhancing Technologies

Philippines, 138–139

phishing attacks, 106

Ping An Technologies, 116

Pinterest, 1–2

PIPEDA. See Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act

pirated goods, 187–190

PoET. See Proof of Elapsed Time

political economy, 1–2, 44, 61, 199–200

polycentric governance, 100, 154–156

Porter, Michael, 152

PoS. See proof-of-stake

PoW. See proof-of-work

PPMs. See process and production methods

predictive analytics, 181–184, 205, 240–241

preferential trade agreements (PTAs), 5–6, 15, 19–20, 53, 268–269. See also specific agreements

conclusion of, 299

consumer protection and, 107, 285–287

customs duties and, 277–278

data flows and, 24–25, 43–44, 58–60, 102, 288–289, 298

data flows provisions in Latin American PTAs, 287–288

data localization and, 28, 290

data protection and, 30–31, 282–285

data-related rules in, 24–26

design features of, 44, 46

digital trade provisions in, 20–23

disagreement among members of, 56–58

electronic authentication and, 278–281

Electronic Commerce Chapters in, 111–112

Electronic Commerce/Digital Trade Chapters in, 110

heterogeneity among, 48

Latin America and, 270–274

negotiators of, 43–44, 58, 61

network of, 54

obligations, 83–84

personal data and, 281–282

preferred venue for digital trade rules, 40

privacy and, 30–31, 282–285

regulatory convergence in, 269–270

source code and, 281

variation in design of, 58

violation of, 299–300

prescriptive risk management, 183–184

President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (US), 209–210

privacy, 3–4, 63–64, 77–79, 195–196, 282–285, 345

administrative requirements on, 78–82

big data and, 205

binary notations of, 206

blockchain and, 147

China and, 87

CPTPP and, 351

cross-border data flows and, 86–87

data regulation and, 109–110

deficiency of binding international frameworks on, 110

differential, 207–209

EU and, 105

GATS and, 93–94

GDPR and, 246

Harvard University Privacy Tools Project, 208

institutional innovations and, 106

limits to, 200–201

mathematical guarantees of, 207–208

of personal data, 245–246

political economy of, 199–200

protection, 14, 38

regimes, 203, 304–307, 309

regulatory coordination on, 98

safeguards for, 197

subject rights on, 81

technology-induced concerns about, 201

Privacy Framework, 11, 105–106

APEC, 31, 37–38, 87, 283–284, 309

developing countries and, 353

Future oriented, 210–211

variations in, 93–94

privacy protection, 14, 20–21, 28–33, 38, 221–225, 281–282, 291, 304, 355

Privacy-Enhancing Technologies (PETs), 203–204, 208

private platform governance, 236

privatization, 180

process and production methods (PPMs), 121–122

PRODHAB. See Agency for the Protection of Data of Inhabitants

productivity, 70–73, 76

Proof of Elapsed Time (PoET), 131–132

proof-of-stake (PoS), 131–132

proof-of-work (PoW), 131–132

property rights, 317, 320–325, 328–329, 338

Protection in the Handling of the Personal Data of Individuals (Costa Rica), 297–298

Provenance, 139–141

Provisional Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on the Management of International Networking of Computer Information Networks (Provisional Regulations), 252–253

PTAs. See preferential trade agreements

public goods, 321–322, 332–333

public interest regulation, 239–240

public interests, 13–14

public safety, 245–246

public sector, 318

Public Sector Information Directive (EU), 333–334

public trust, 354

Qian Tianbai, 246–247

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), 186–187

RCEP. See Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership

R&D. See research and development

reactive jurisdictional claims, 237–238

reCAPTCHA, 346

rectification, 327–328

regime complexity, 45

Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), 352

Regulation to the Law of Promotion of Competition and Effective Defence of the Consumer (Costa Rica), 297–298

regulatory convergence, 154, 269–273

regulatory cooperation, 41, 47–48, 56–58

regulatory environments, 58, 66, 152–153

regulatory fragmentation, 144, 146, 152–153

regulatory harmonisation, 270

regulatory sandboxes, 153–154

Reidenberg, Joel, 237

research and development (R&D), 74–76

Resta, Giorgio, 236

revenue collection, 137–138

RFID. See Radio Frequency Identification

right to information, 327–328, 353–354

The Right to Privacy (Brandeis and Warren), 195–196

Ripple, 132

risk analysis, 183–185

risk management, 103–104, 183–184

Ross, Wilbur, 358–359

rule-makers, 51–60, 300

rule-making, 269–270, 359

rule-takers, 300, 359

Russia, 66

Rwanda, 165–166

SAFTA See Singapore-Australia Free Trade Agreement

sanctions for non-compliance, 82

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), 139

Scassa, Teresa, 308, 347

Scholz, Lauren, 345–346

Schrems, 36

Schwartz, Paul M., 225

scope indicator of trade agreement provisions, 46

Seal, 140–141

sector-specific regulations, 333–334, 336–337

security standards, 108–109

Segura-Serrano, Antonio, 100

Selby, John, 90

semi-automated border controls, 181–182

Services Sectoral Classification List, 254–255

Shackelford, Scott, 100

SIC. See Superintendence of Industry and Commerce

Singapore, 20–23, 28, 33

consumer protection and, 56–58

Singapore–Australia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA), 21–23, 28

small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), 70, 135, 269–270, 274–275, 298, 332–333

small services–oriented economies, 66

smart city, 117

smart contracts, 133–134, 138–139

SMEs. See small- and medium-sized enterprises

Snapchat, 147

Snowden, Edward, 199–200

social media, 345

socialism, 256–257

software regulation, 255–256

Solove, Daniel J., 225

source code, 108–109, 224, 281, 305, 308

transparency of, 99

South Africa, 268–269

South Korea, 33, 138

South Korea–United States FTA, 24–27

Sovrin, 147

spam control, 36–37

Spotify, 140–141

SPS. See Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

stakeholders, 5–6, 8, 63–64, 77, 106, 138–139, 145, 152, 157–158, 180, 186–187, 212–213, 229, 245–246, 317, 354

Standard Contractual Clauses, 86–87

Stitch Fix, 340–343, 345–346, 349

Stone, S., 79

Strava, 340–343, 345–346, 349

supercomputers, 1–2

Superintendence of Industry and Commerce (SIC), 296–297

Supreme People’s Court (China), 257–258

Supreme People’s Procuratorate (China), 257–258

surveillance capitalism, 197–198, 228–229

Swedish National Board of Trade, 64–65

Switzerland, 189–190

Szabo, Nick, 133–134

Taiwan–Nicaragua FTA, 288–289

takedown requests, 180–181

TAPED See Trade Agreements Provisions on Electronic Commerce and Data (dataset)

tariff losses, 109

tariffs, 176

TBT. See Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade

TDM. See Text and Data Mining

technological advances, 187–188, 195–196, 205

technological protection measure (TPM), 162, 173

Telecommunication Act (US), 246

Telecommunication Regulation (China), 254–256

Telecommunications Reference Paper, 110

Tencent, 258–259

terrorism, 245–246

Tesla, 119

Text and Data Mining (TDM), 161, 169–176

text-as-data analysis, 53–55

TFA. See Trade Facilitation Agreement

TFP. See total factor productivity

TikTok, 115–116

TiSA. See Trade in Services Agreement

Total factor productivity (TFP), 71

TPM. See technological protection measure

TPP. See Transpacific Partnership Agreement

trade agreements, 214–215, 245. See also Free Trade Agreements; preferential trade agreements

Trade Agreements Provisions on Electronic Commerce and Data (dataset) (TAPED), 20–21, 58–61, 270–271, 275–276

trade conflicts, 17

trade distortions, 69

Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), 15–16, 137–138

trade finance, 134, 152–154, 156

coordination costs, 135–136

Trade in Services Agreement (TiSA), 219–220, 238–239, 261, 349

trade rules, 3, 15, 24, 85, 111–112, 116–117, 176, 238–241, 345

digital, 20, 36, 40, 238–240, 268–269

international, 122, 239–240, 242

traditional, 268

Trade Secrets Directive (EU), 335–336

trade wars, 358–359

trade-inhibiting effects, 64–65

Tradelens, 135

transaction costs, 269–270, 323–325

Transpacific Partnership Agreement (TPP), 27–28, 55–56, 273, 289, 351

transparency, 31–32, 38, 99–100, 107–108, 119, 129–130, 156, 191–192

active, 291–293

of blockchain, 139

cooperation on, 47–48

ensuring, 210–211

facilitation of, 348

GATS and, 92–93

importance of, 140–141

industry developments in, 272

lack of, 269–270

principles of, 337

requirements of, 14

of source code, 266

treaty design, 58–60

TRIPS. See Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

Trump, Donald, 238–239

TTIP. See EU-US Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership

Tucker, Catherine, 74–75

Tunisia, 26–27, 220

Turkey, 66

Twitter, 1–2, 342

Uber, 345–346

UDHR. See Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Ukraine, 51

UN Human Rights Council, 234–235

UN/CEFACT. See United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business

UNCITRAL. See United Nations Commission on International Trade Law

UNCTAD. See United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

Undisclosed Information Law (Costa Rica), 297–298

UNIDROIT. See International Institute for the Unification of Private Law

Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits, 145

United Kingdom, 347

United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business (UN/CEFACT), 157

United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), 99

Model Law on Electronic Commerce, 107, 157–158

Model Law on Electronic Transferable Records, 142–143, 157–158

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 91–92, 165–166, 223–224, 228

Digital Economy Report, 213–214

United States (US), 14, 21, 118–119, 196–197, 215, 312–313. See also specific agreements

blockchain and, 143–144

Census, 205, 207–208

Communications Decency Act, 38–39

Copyright Act, 171–172

Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, 175

CPTPP and, 351

Digital Agenda of, 33

Digital Trade Agenda, 268–269

digital trade and, 34

EU–US Privacy Shield, 104–105, 149–150

Telecommunication Act, 246

trade war, 358–359

United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA), 20–25, 28, 31–32, 37–40, 112, 216–217, 238–239

APEC Cross-Border Privacy Rules and, 284

Article 19.16(2) of, 108–109

Canada and, 302, 312, 314–315

CPTPP difference with, 309–312

digital trade chapter in, 312–313

e-commerce and, 273, 303–304

Financial Services Chapter of, 102

NAFTA 2.0 and, 351

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 234–235

Universal Trade Network, 155–156

urbanization, 195–196

Uruguay Round, 15–16

US – Gambling case, 17

US International Trade Commission (USITC), 74

US–Japan Digital Trade Agreement (DTA), 21–23, 33–34, 39–40, 224

USMCA. See United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement

US–South Korea FTA, 34–35

utopism, 234–235

value chains, 181–182

global value chains (GVC), 238–239

value-added telecommunications services, 18–19

van der Marel, Erik, 75–76, 302–303

VCargoCloud, 139–140

VeChain, 140–141

Verified Organic, 139

Vietnam, 183

Virtual Private Network (VPN), 252–253, 256

virtual reality, 197

vital digital assets, 108

Voltron, 135–136

Volvo, 119

VPN. See Virtual Private Network

Warren, Samuel, 195–196

WCO. See World Customs Organization

WCopyfind, 53–55

WEF. See World Economic Forum

Weibo, 258–259

Weinhold, D., 74

West, Darrell, 357–358

We.trade, 135–136

WIPO. See World Intellectual Property Organization

Work Programme on Electronic Commerce, 19–20, 239–240, 261–262, 264

World Bank, 356

World Customs Organization (WCO), 157

World Economic Forum (WEF), 43, 234, 301–302, 341–342, 345–346

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), 140, 173

World Trade Organization (WTO), 3, 42, 238–239, 301–302, 349

adaptive governance, 18

Agreement on Rules of Origin, 139–140

Agreements, 15–16, 116–117

AI and, 119–121

applicability of WTO rules to trade agreements, 275

big data and, 164–166

blockchain and, 128, 137–141, 156, 158

case law, 217

China and, 254–255

consumer protection and, 107

Council for Trade in Services, 124–125

customs duties and, 275

data flows and, 98, 110–112

data protectionism and, 76–78

data regulation, framework for, 101

data restrictive measures and, 92–93

data transfer and, 112

data-related issues, 97–98, 265–266

digital trade and, 315

Dispute Settlement Body, 174

e-commerce and, 43, 146, 216–217

exploring new regulatory approaches in, 100–101

fostering transparency of member’s trade regimes, 156

General Council, 140–141, 261–262

Global Trade and Blockchain Forum, 157

interoperable and transparent standards in data regulation, 107

Joint Statement Initiative on Electronic Commerce, 19–20, 26, 77, 112, 142, 156, 158, 266, 268–269, 301–302

lack of progress under umbrella of, 40

members, 84–85, 99–100, 103–104, 350

Ministerial Conferences, 110, 261, 263–264, 268–269, 349–350

normative reach of, 176

norms, 35–36

obligations, 83–84, 122–123

Panel Report, 175–176

personal information and, 104–105

Plurilateral Negotiations on Trade-Related Aspects of Electronic Commerce, 312–314

as pre-Internet law, 15–20

secretariat, 352–353

Xi Jinping, 250–251, 260–261, 266–267

Xiaoice, 115–116

Yahoo!, 12–13, 69–70

Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP), 148–149

Zhao Lianhai, 257–258

Zhu Rongji, 248–249

Zimbabwe, 353–354

ZKP. See Zero-Knowledge Proof

Zuboff, Shoshana, 228–229

Zuckerberg, Mark, 117

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