Gervais & Fessler (G&F) suggest that “contempt,” a cultural-level folk concept, is on the decline in American culture. This change is evident in a decline in the frequency of the word contempt in the American English corpus, which, the authors argue, reflects a shift to a dignity culture (Leung & Cohen Reference Leung and Cohen2011), one in which all people are assumed to have inherent rights and dignity, and expressions of contempt are viewed as illegitimate. But why might such a shift have taken place? We propose that changes towards a dignity culture represent shifts in values that are often responses to changes in socioecological conditions. Previous work has linked variations in ecological factors such as pathogen prevalence and climatic stress in interaction with resource levels to cultural variations in a host of behaviors, attitudes, and other psychological tendencies (e.g., Fincher & Thornhill Reference Fincher and Thornhill2012; Thornhill & Fincher Reference Thornhill and Fincher2014; Van de Vliert Reference Van de Vliert2013). In our work we have explored how changes in socioecological variables are also linked to cultural-level shifts in culture's value systems and associated practices and behaviors. For example, higher socioeconomic standing (as well as the prevalence of infectious diseases, and decreasing frequency of natural disasters) are associated with cultural-level shifts towards products and practices reflecting individualism in the United States (Grossmann & Varnum Reference Grossmann and Varnum2015), with similar patterns occurring across a variety of other societies (Santos et al. Reference Santos, Varnum and Grossmann2017). Similarly, reduction in prevalence of infectious diseases has been associated with reduction in cultural-level gender inequality (Varnum & Grossmann Reference Varnum and Grossmann2016). It is, therefore, possible that cultural change in the prevalence of contempt may also be linked to shifts in social ecology.
To test this idea, we analyzed archival data on the frequency of the use of the word contempt and its synonyms disdain, disgrace, and despised in the American English corpus using Google's Ngrams database (https://books.google.com/ngrams), from the beginning of the 20th century until the emergence of digital readers like Amazon Kindle (1900–2006). We also looked at the frequency of the word contempt and its synonyms in the Bookworm Movies database over the same period (starting in the 1930s; see: movies.benschmidt.org), which provided uses of the word per million words of dialogue in thousands of American movies and television shows and archival data on pathogen prevalence, socioeconomic status (SES), urbanization, deaths resulting from natural disasters, and climatic stress (Grossmann & Varnum Reference Grossmann and Varnum2015), as well as unemployment (U.S. Department of Labor) in the United States during this period. All data are available at the Open Science Framework (see: osf.io/k6ec8). Pathogen prevalence was positively correlated with the use of contempt-related words in books, r = 0.69, whereas socioeconomic development (tracked through urbanization, less unemployment, and median shifts in occupational prestige) was negatively associated with the use of contempt-related words in books, r
urbanization = −0.78, r
lessunemployment = −0.43, r
levelofSES = −0.92. The number of deaths due to natural disasters was weakly positively associated with the use of contempt-related words in books, r = 0.22, whereas the relationship between climatic stress and contempt-related words was negligible, r = −0.10.
Similar patterns were found in analysis of movie and television dialogue. Pathogen prevalence was positively correlated with the use of contempt-related words in movies and television, r = 0.25, whereas markers of socioeconomic development were negatively correlated with contempt-related words in these media, r
urbanization = −0.43, r
lessunemployment = −0.18, r
levelofSES = −0.68. Natural disasters and climatic stress were only negligibly related with use of contempt-related words in movies and television, −0.02 < r's < 0.11.
To explore the lagged relationships between these variables, we also analyzed the data using cross-correlation functions (CCFs). We found that decline in pathogen prevalence is lagging, rather than causing, the decline in contempt-related words in books and is unrelated to contempt-related words in television and movie scripts. In contrast, socioeconomic development (standardized average of SES, urbanization, and reverse-scored unemployment) was bidirectionally associated with the frequency of contempt-related words in books, and predicted the frequency of contempt-related words in television and movie scripts 20 years later.
Why might pathogen prevalence and socioeconomic conditions be linked to changes in contempt? As G&F note, contempt as a sentiment serves as a guide to action; as such it may cause people to avoid contact with others for whom they feel contempt. Objects of contempt are often out-groups, as G&F note. Previous work has consistently linked xenophobia and in-group bias to higher levels of pathogen prevalence (Fincher & Thornhill Reference Fincher and Thornhill2012; Huang et al. Reference Huang, Sedlovskaya, Ackerman and Bargh2011; Schaller & Park Reference Schaller and Park2011). Given that the sentiment and the folk affect concept of contempt are interrelated, it may be possible that pathogen levels influence how the notion and the utility of the folk affect concept contempt will change, too.
G&F also suggest that contempt is inferred from disrespectful, irreverent behavior. Appraisal of behavior as disrespectful may be more pronounced in societies emphasizing social stratification (e.g., between the working, middle, and upper classes). As U.S. society continues to move from industrial to post-industrial means of production (i.e., from manual labor to office work), contempt may continue to decline. Moreover, G&F suggest that contempt should be more common when there is greater competition for resources. Thus, shifts in occupational status and unemployment levels might be linked to cultural shifts in the prevalence of contempt as was seen in our data. These findings are also broadly consistent with modernization theory, which holds that as people become more materially secure, they become more tolerant and supportive of diversity (Inglehart & Welzel Reference Inglehart and Welzel2005). These relationships should be confirmed in systematic experimental work; however, our initial analyses provide support for the notion that expressions of contempt (and cultural changes in contempt) are likely intertwined with the major societal-level shifts in social ecology.
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Gervais & Fessler (G&F) suggest that “contempt,” a cultural-level folk concept, is on the decline in American culture. This change is evident in a decline in the frequency of the word contempt in the American English corpus, which, the authors argue, reflects a shift to a dignity culture (Leung & Cohen Reference Leung and Cohen2011), one in which all people are assumed to have inherent rights and dignity, and expressions of contempt are viewed as illegitimate. But why might such a shift have taken place? We propose that changes towards a dignity culture represent shifts in values that are often responses to changes in socioecological conditions. Previous work has linked variations in ecological factors such as pathogen prevalence and climatic stress in interaction with resource levels to cultural variations in a host of behaviors, attitudes, and other psychological tendencies (e.g., Fincher & Thornhill Reference Fincher and Thornhill2012; Thornhill & Fincher Reference Thornhill and Fincher2014; Van de Vliert Reference Van de Vliert2013). In our work we have explored how changes in socioecological variables are also linked to cultural-level shifts in culture's value systems and associated practices and behaviors. For example, higher socioeconomic standing (as well as the prevalence of infectious diseases, and decreasing frequency of natural disasters) are associated with cultural-level shifts towards products and practices reflecting individualism in the United States (Grossmann & Varnum Reference Grossmann and Varnum2015), with similar patterns occurring across a variety of other societies (Santos et al. Reference Santos, Varnum and Grossmann2017). Similarly, reduction in prevalence of infectious diseases has been associated with reduction in cultural-level gender inequality (Varnum & Grossmann Reference Varnum and Grossmann2016). It is, therefore, possible that cultural change in the prevalence of contempt may also be linked to shifts in social ecology.
To test this idea, we analyzed archival data on the frequency of the use of the word contempt and its synonyms disdain, disgrace, and despised in the American English corpus using Google's Ngrams database (https://books.google.com/ngrams), from the beginning of the 20th century until the emergence of digital readers like Amazon Kindle (1900–2006). We also looked at the frequency of the word contempt and its synonyms in the Bookworm Movies database over the same period (starting in the 1930s; see: movies.benschmidt.org), which provided uses of the word per million words of dialogue in thousands of American movies and television shows and archival data on pathogen prevalence, socioeconomic status (SES), urbanization, deaths resulting from natural disasters, and climatic stress (Grossmann & Varnum Reference Grossmann and Varnum2015), as well as unemployment (U.S. Department of Labor) in the United States during this period. All data are available at the Open Science Framework (see: osf.io/k6ec8). Pathogen prevalence was positively correlated with the use of contempt-related words in books, r = 0.69, whereas socioeconomic development (tracked through urbanization, less unemployment, and median shifts in occupational prestige) was negatively associated with the use of contempt-related words in books, r urbanization = −0.78, r lessunemployment = −0.43, r levelofSES = −0.92. The number of deaths due to natural disasters was weakly positively associated with the use of contempt-related words in books, r = 0.22, whereas the relationship between climatic stress and contempt-related words was negligible, r = −0.10.
Similar patterns were found in analysis of movie and television dialogue. Pathogen prevalence was positively correlated with the use of contempt-related words in movies and television, r = 0.25, whereas markers of socioeconomic development were negatively correlated with contempt-related words in these media, r urbanization = −0.43, r lessunemployment = −0.18, r levelofSES = −0.68. Natural disasters and climatic stress were only negligibly related with use of contempt-related words in movies and television, −0.02 < r's < 0.11.
To explore the lagged relationships between these variables, we also analyzed the data using cross-correlation functions (CCFs). We found that decline in pathogen prevalence is lagging, rather than causing, the decline in contempt-related words in books and is unrelated to contempt-related words in television and movie scripts. In contrast, socioeconomic development (standardized average of SES, urbanization, and reverse-scored unemployment) was bidirectionally associated with the frequency of contempt-related words in books, and predicted the frequency of contempt-related words in television and movie scripts 20 years later.
Why might pathogen prevalence and socioeconomic conditions be linked to changes in contempt? As G&F note, contempt as a sentiment serves as a guide to action; as such it may cause people to avoid contact with others for whom they feel contempt. Objects of contempt are often out-groups, as G&F note. Previous work has consistently linked xenophobia and in-group bias to higher levels of pathogen prevalence (Fincher & Thornhill Reference Fincher and Thornhill2012; Huang et al. Reference Huang, Sedlovskaya, Ackerman and Bargh2011; Schaller & Park Reference Schaller and Park2011). Given that the sentiment and the folk affect concept of contempt are interrelated, it may be possible that pathogen levels influence how the notion and the utility of the folk affect concept contempt will change, too.
G&F also suggest that contempt is inferred from disrespectful, irreverent behavior. Appraisal of behavior as disrespectful may be more pronounced in societies emphasizing social stratification (e.g., between the working, middle, and upper classes). As U.S. society continues to move from industrial to post-industrial means of production (i.e., from manual labor to office work), contempt may continue to decline. Moreover, G&F suggest that contempt should be more common when there is greater competition for resources. Thus, shifts in occupational status and unemployment levels might be linked to cultural shifts in the prevalence of contempt as was seen in our data. These findings are also broadly consistent with modernization theory, which holds that as people become more materially secure, they become more tolerant and supportive of diversity (Inglehart & Welzel Reference Inglehart and Welzel2005). These relationships should be confirmed in systematic experimental work; however, our initial analyses provide support for the notion that expressions of contempt (and cultural changes in contempt) are likely intertwined with the major societal-level shifts in social ecology.