This study assesses producer perceptions of traceability issues in organic agriculture, using survey data from the 2001 National Agricultural, Food and Public Policy Preference Survey. The survey provides food policy and socio-economic data that facilitate the examination of traceability issues in organic agriculture. The logistic regression models that are used to examine the relationship between traceability and organic agriculture are robust across models. The models indicate a decreased likelihood for federal government intervention on the part of organic producers for policies that improve traceability from consumer back to producer to improve food safety and tracking. However, the results suggest that organic producers with sales under $US 50,000 are more likely to indicate some willingness for government intervention. The analysis also shows that producers want food products made with biotechnology to be labeled if there is a scientifically determined difference in the product. While education may be an avenue to facilitate greater acceptance of traceability issues, the results indicate a negative relationship between the acceptance of traceability and farmers with a bachelor‘s degree. This finding is surprising given the on-going debate surrounding biotech foods and traceability. Clearly the reluctance on the part of producers with bachelor‘s degrees to embrace tracing could hinder such efforts if those producers assume leadership positions in their communities. Perhaps such results are a reflection of the confidence that those producers have in the quality of organic produce.

Pesticide Free Production (PFP) is a pesticide reduction system that removes in-crop pesticide use on a yearly basis. A long-term study was established in 2000 to investigate the effect of crop rotation and frequency of inclusion on the success of PFP, as well as the effect of PFP on subsequent crops in the rotation. The crop rotations being compared were linola–oat–canola–wheat and linola–oat–alfalfa–alfalfa. PFP occurred either once in the rotation (oat) or twice (linola–oat). Weed density and yield were measured in the crops that followed PFP. Oat was a more successful PFP crop than linola because it was better able to compete with weeds. Furthermore, PFP oat had a higher weed density when it followed PFP linola, but this did not influence PFP oat yield. Under the conditions of this study, PFP linola was more successful in the annual crop rotation. Inclusion of alfalfa hay crops in the crop rotation was not effective in lowering weed pressure and, in fact, may have contributed to an increase in weed density. It is concluded that weed species present influenced the effectiveness of alfalfa in facilitating PFP, because major weeds in the study are not effectively controlled by alfalfa. PFP did not have a negative effect on following crops in the rotation (i.e. canola–wheat or alfalfa), regardless of whether one or two consecutive years of PFP occurred in the rotation. No additional herbicide was necessary for weed control in the crops that followed PFP; however, alfalfa hay was weedier for the first year following PFP. This study indicates that PFP is a viable way to reduce herbicide use in a cropping system and that attention needs to be paid to PFP crop selection and crop rotation, particularly when the PFP crop is less competitive with weeds.

Small farmers face more challenges in farming than ever before. Examples include competition and consolidation within the global marketplace and low and unpredictable product prices. Evaluation and development of alternative market outlets is one means of helping small farms to become more economically sustainable. From 2000 to 2020 the US population is expected to increase by between 50 and 80 million people. A concomitant increase in consumer demand for local, fresh, specialty and organic produce is also projected. Alternative market outlets that skillfully link local or regional small-scale production with evolving consumer demand are currently lacking. We hypothesize that there is considerable potential for helping small farmers sustain or improve their economic position and fulfill consumer needs by exploiting these connections in the marketplace. This investigation draws from the literature to ascertain whether horticultural auction markets may provide such a link for small farms. The paper characterizes horticultural auction markets using current and historical examples, discusses marketplace changes with special reference to consumer demand, and appraises the value of this market model with respect to the dual challenge of meeting both farmers' and consumers' needs. Current marketplace research and characteristics suggest measured optimism for horticultural auction markets to provide a small farm–consumer link.

Grain and livestock production have gradually been separated, as farmers have tended to specialize in one or the other. Some producers and scientists are beginning to question whether this is the best approach. An integrated crop/livestock project was initiated in 1999 to investigate potentially beneficial synergies to both enterprises. The cattle portion of this project involved wintering dry pregnant cows on swathed crop residue and drilled corn produced in a 3-year crop rotation, with all crops present each year. Swath grazing was initiated in mid-November of 1999, 2000 and 2001, and terminated in mid-February each year. Two replications of ten Hereford cows were rotationally grazed on swathed oat/pea and triticale crop residue and swathed drilled corn (RGSC). Comparison treatments were: cows grazing swathed western wheatgrass (SWWG) and cows fed hay in a drylot. Cows on the RGSC treatment were also fed a 20% crude protein supplement of oat/pea and triticale grain. Drilled corn was swathed in late September and western wheatgrass in early October. Three-year average winter-long weight gains for the RGSC cows were slightly lower (P<0.10) than those for drylot cows. Body condition scores generally followed the same pattern as weight gain data. Reproductive and calf performance data were not significantly different among wintering treatments. Average daily feed costs per cow over the three winters were US$0.49, 0.65 and 0.73 for RGSC, SWWG and baled hay in a drylot, respectively, providing a potential daily savings of US$0.24 per cow with the RGSC treatment compared to bale feeding in a drylot. Swath grazing did not appear to have any adverse affects on mid-aged beef cow performance and could potentially reduce winter feeding costs and manure handling problems. The main problem with swath grazing is potentially deep snow and icing of the swaths.

Perennial cropping systems may achieve significant improvement over annual systems in the synchrony between crop nutrient demands and nutrient supplies. Improvements in nutrient synchrony would result in the reduction of nutrient losses and their associated environmental impacts. A perennial system with high levels of synchrony would also require fewer nutrient inputs, such that it may be possible to develop an agriculture that functions mostly, if not entirely, on nutrient inputs from endogenous sources (i.e., weathering of primary and secondary minerals and biological nitrogen fixation). In this paper I describe three realms of research that will inform the development of relatively high-yielding grain production systems grown on endogenous nutrient supplies: (1) improvement of nutrient synchrony through the development of perennial crops; (2) identification of soils that are in a high nutrient release phase of pedogenesis, which could balance the export of rock-derived nutrients in crop harvests; and (3) optimization of legume density, harvest index and percent nitrogen derived from the atmosphere (%Ndfa) to achieve adequate nitrogen inputs through biological fixation.

A survey was conducted in 2002 to measure the success of technology transfered to growers (i.e., changes in attitudes and behaviors) from a long-term, large-scale, integrated cropping systems experiment called the Ralston Project, near Ralston, Washington, USA. Non-irrigated, cereal and oilseed growers who participated in biennial field tours (1996–2000) were mailed a self-administered questionnaire, which asked about: (1) their interest, use and adoption of technology developed or demonstrated in the project; (2) their opinions about the project's collaborators, planning and design; and (3) their overall impressions of the project. One hundred and one eligible growers responded to the questionnaire, for a 55% overall response rate and a 62% completion rate. Survey results confirmed that the Ralston Project field tours were a successful means of technology transfer among participants. Seventy-seven percent of growers found one or more project technologies particularly useful to their own production operation(s). More than 60% conducted independent trials with one or more technologies, with 50% of these trials resulting in permanent adoptions. The project's planning and design had a more positive effect on growers' opinion of the project than the type of collaborations and sources of funding. Specific strategies that had a substantially positive effect on growers' opinions included: (1) the project's ‘whole system’ treatment design; (2) use of large plots to accommodate field-sized equipment; and (3) collaboration among scientific disciplines and with local growers. Seven variables known to influence the adoption of innovation were also tested against growers' decisions to try any of the project's technology in their own farm operations. Personal character variables influenced individuals' decisions to try project technology more so than environmental conditions. Level of education, previous adoption behavior and average annual rainfall significantly influenced growers' behavior (P<0.05). Our survey population consisted of early users of conservation-based farming technology, primarily innovators and early adopters. The Ralston Project made the greatest impact on current adopters and users of conservation-based farming technology. Interest among non-users was also high enough to suggest that the Ralston Project contributed positively to the diffusion of conservation cropping systems and associated technology into the greater grower community. We discovered from this survey that the planning and execution of field research plays a significant and influential role in transferring more complex, and perhaps high-risk, conservation-based farm technology. By understanding how research and field design affect different user groups within the grower community, professionals can identify appropriate strategies to expand interest beyond their primary target audience and influence attitudes and behaviors that facilitate widespread adoption.

Agricultural enterprises that are run on ecological principles receive, in some countries, higher levels of financial support from the European Union (EU) than other agricultural businesses. The aim is to provide an incentive for businesses to adopt organic farming systems, a change desired by both politicians and society. However, with a fixed system of support payments based on land area, increasing the proportion of farms being run organically leads directly to higher costs of subsidies for the EU and the individual countries. This becomes especially true if enterprises with large land areas, high turnover and high income are converted to organic farming methods. Because financial resources within the member states are in very short supply, a modification of the current system of subsidies would seem to be necessary in the near future. The aim of any new system should be to reduce profit windfalls without making a drastic reduction in the incentive effect of the current system. At the same time, businesses that can run along these lines on a sustainable basis should be especially supported. This requires an increased level of individual assessment of the potential of the subsidized enterprises in relation to their cost–performance ratio for organic agricultural production. In this connection, a partial change to profit-based tax systems can be used as an effective instrument for co-financing. The method used to calculate profits for tax purposes, which varies from state to state, can be used to assess the performance and success of the organic farmer. Tax-free allowances or reductions in tax rates could be used to provide a selective subsidy method. The ability to relate subsidies to performance, thereby reducing windfall profits, is not the only advantage of using the tax system for this purpose. Another advantage is the low transaction costs. Using the example of the offsetting of profits between time periods, it will be shown here that the tax system can be used as an additional instrument for subsidization. The existing methods of subsidy can only be supported in this way, not completely substituted.

Information is needed on the role of cover crops as a weed control alternative due to the high adoption of conservation tillage in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production. Field experiments were conducted from fall 1994 through fall 1997 in Alabama to evaluate three winter cereal cover crops in a high-residue conservation-tillage, soybean production system. Black oat (Avena strigosa Schreb.), rye (Secale cereale L.), and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) were evaluated for their weed-suppressive characteristics compared to a winter fallow system. Three herbicide systems were utilized: no herbicide, a mixture of two pre-emergence (PRE) herbicides, or PRE plus post-emergence (POST) herbicides. The PRE system contained pendimethalin plus metribuzin. The PRE plus POST system contained pendimethalin plus a prepackage of metribuzin and chlorimuron ethyl applied PRE, followed by an additional chlorimuron ethyl POST application. No cover crop was effective in controlling weeds without a herbicide. However, when black oat or rye was utilized with only PRE herbicides, weed control was similar to the PRE plus POST input system. Thus, herbicide reductions may be attained by utilizing cover crops that provide weed suppression. Rye and black oat provided more effective weed control in the PRE only herbicide input system than wheat in conservation-tillage soybean. The winter fallow, PRE plus POST herbicide input system yielded significantly less soybean one out of three years when compared to systems that included a winter cover crop.

A goal in sustainable agriculture is to use fossil fuel energy more efficiently in crop production. This 12-year study investigated effects of two crop rotations and two crop production systems (organic versus conventional management) on energy use, energy output and energy-use efficiency. The grain-based rotation included wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)–pea (Pisum sativum L.)–wheat–flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), while the integrated rotation included wheat–alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)–alfalfa–flax. Energy use was 50% lower with organic than with conventional management, and approximately 40% lower with integrated than with the grain-based rotation. Energy use across all treatments averaged 3420 MJ ha−1 yr−1. Energy output (grain and alfalfa herbage only) across treatments averaged 49,947 MJ ha−1 yr−1 and was affected independently by production system and crop rotation. Energy output in the integrated rotation was three times that of the grain-based rotation; however, this difference was largely due to differences in crop type (whole plant alfalfa compared with grain seed). Energy output was 30% lower with organic than with conventional management. Energy efficiency (output energy/input energy) averaged to 17.4 and was highest in the organic and integrated rotations. A significant rotation by production system interaction (P<0.05) indicated that energy efficiency increases due to crop input reduction (i.e., shift from conventional to organic management) were greater in the integrated than in the grain-based rotation. Greater energy efficiency in the integrated rotation under organic management was attributed to the fact that the forage component was less sensitive to chemical input removal than grain crops.

Native orchid cultivation is a compatible alternative for impoverished coffee farmers in southeastern Mexico who are in crisis due to falling prices. Sustainable orchid cultivation is also an urgent necessity as an alternative to nonsustainable extraction from protected reserves, forest fragments and traditional coffee plantations, and to restore and conserve populations within these habitats. Our objective was to test the effects of locally available substrates and fertilizers upon orchids cultivated under typical rural conditions in coffee-producing areas in Soconusco, Chiapas. Seven species of epiphytic orchids native to Soconusco region—Cattleya aurantiaca, Brassavola nodosa, Prosthechea (Encyclia) chacaoensis, Anathallis (Pleurothallis) racemiflora, Cattleya skinneri, Cycnoches ventricosum and Encyclia cordigera—were propagated in vitro, acclimatized and established in rustic orchid galleries in the home gardens and plantations of coffee growers. Locally available waste products were used as substrates: clay tiles, tree bark, bamboo, seed hulls of pataxte (Theobroma bicolor) and wire baskets filled with bark chips. Two cheap and readily available commercial foliar feeds, Algaenzims (an organic product) and Bayfolan (a synthetic product) were tested. First, the substrates alone were tested for a period of 6 months to 1 year, then a combination of substrates and fertilizers were tested for 6 months, for effects upon leaf and root growth and root number. The mortality rates of these nonsymbiotically propagated, epiphytic orchids during the acclimatization phase, prior to these experiments, were high, between 60 and 90%. Once established in rustic galleries, the young orchid plants showed no preference for a particular substrate, survival depended upon technical problems during establishment, relating to difficulties with the attachment of plants to substrates, and the variable quality of care and attention offered by the farmers. Both fertilizers significantly improved one or all the parameters studied, and possibly counteracted the negative effects of the absence of symbiotic fungi, which, under natural conditions, are essential for orchid seed germination and adequate development of the young plant. More than half of the producers did not continue with the orchid cultures for economic and cultural reasons.

Interactions between environmental conditions and management practices can significantly affect soil function. Soil quality assessments may improve our understanding of how soils interact with the hydrosphere and atmosphere. This information can then be used to develop management practices that improve the capacity of the soil to perform its various functions and help identify physical, chemical, and biological soil attributes to quantify the present state of a soil and detect changes resulting from management. In protocols established by the Great Plains cropping system network, sampling and testing procedures were selected to identify physical, chemical, and biological soil attributes responsive to management that may serve as useful indicators in assessing the effects of management on the soil resource. Eight existing long-term studies from throughout the Great Plains in the central USA were used to make these assessments because, (1) many years are required for certain soil properties to change measurably; (2) annual weather causes variation in system performance; and (3) the soil pools of interest are spatially variable. This paper includes detailed descriptions of the treatments and sites, and both long-term and short-term (1999–2002) data on precipitation, temperature, and yields for each location.

In the past decade, sales of meat products labeled as natural (minimally processed) and produced without antibiotics and hormones have increased dramatically. In response to growing demand for meat products differentiated by various production attributes, many smaller-scale beef enterprises are considering direct marketing of their beef products to end-consumers as a viable approach to sustaining their family farming operations. This research uses survey data from Colorado consumers, and factor and cluster analysis to determine market segments for various (varied by production protocols and other meat attributes) natural beef products. Findings from the cluster analysis indicate that there are multiple segments of consumers who are likely to purchase natural beef, and that different segments are motivated by different factors. The most important factor explaining almost two-thirds of the differences among consumer responses relates to consumers' perceptions of the importance of meat attributes related to production practices (e.g. use of antibiotics, hormones and environmentally friendly grazing). Interestingly, the two consumer segments that are willing to pay a significantly higher premium for natural, local beef are motivated by different aspects of the meat and its intrinsic production attributes. One segment, representing 12.5% of consumers, ranked the importance of all production attributes significantly lower than the sample average. Consumers in this segment appear to be motivated by their perceptions of the extrinsic quality of natural beef products. The other segment, 13% of consumers, appears to be altruistic, ranking all production attributes such as ‘no antibiotics’, ‘no hormones’, and ‘humane treatment’, significantly higher than all of the other clusters. These results indicate the potential strength of production methods (and marketing of such quality differences) as product differentiation criteria. This paper illustrates the type of market research that may be useful for beef producers seeking value-added marketing opportunities, and portrays the types of consumers who are fueling the growth in natural meats in the United States. Such market analysis can facilitate producers' ability to effectively develop product concepts, labeling and promotional strategies targeted at the most receptive consumer segments, and illustrates that there is more than one type of consumer interested in purchasing products differentiated by sustainable production methods.

Our global food supply becomes more vulnerable as we continue to lose diverse genetic resources. The Ossabaw hog is a feral breed that is unique to North America, a distant relative to the renowned Iberian hog and is considered an endangered swine breed. The objective of our farmer participatory project was to examine the meat and fat characteristics of Ossabaw hogs raised in alternative management systems for niche-market application. At one farm, eight Ossabaw pigs were randomly assigned to a grass pasture and fed a free choice corn–soy (CS) ration or placed in a mixed hardwood forest plot and provided free choice peanuts in the shells (P), alfalfa pellets (A) and mast from the mixed hardwoods (diet collectively referred to as PAM). The two diets had no effect on Ossabaw production data or pork quality characteristics; however, fat profiles were altered. Ossabaws weighed approximately 70 kg when harvested at 400 days and produced chops with small loin eyes (21–23 cm2) and minimal evidence of intramuscular fat deposits (1%). The unsaturated fatty acid (USFA) to saturated fatty acid (SFA) ratio improved from 1.6 to 2.6 (P<0.01) as a result of feeding the PAM diet. Forest-finished Ossabaw pork was considered more flavorful by food critics and renowned chefs than that of conventionally fed animals. Mast from hardwoods offers the possibility of enhancing pork flavor for niche markets and using a renewable forest resource as a food source. For farm two, eight Ossabaw gilts and eight crossbred progeny (from European breeds) were randomly assigned to one of the two dirt-lots and fed free choice a CS ration or PA diet (same ration as mentioned above with no mast). Ossabaw hogs grew nearly one-third as fast as the crosses and weighed approximately 80% of the crosses' harvest weight at twice their age. Loin eye areas of the crosses were nearly twice as large as the Ossabaws while the subcutaneous back fat deposition was nearly half. Compared to the CS diet, the PA ration decreased SFA by 23% while polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) increased by 60%. The USFA to SFA ratios improved from 1.5 to 2.2 (P<0.01) when PA diets were fed. Differences (P<0.05) in USFA profiles were observed for breed effects; Ossabaws had 8% higher levels of monounsaturated fatty acids and 18% lower PUFA levels than the crosses. When adjusted for breed effects, no differences in sensory characteristics for the CS versus PA diets were detected by a trained panel. Ossabaws were more flavorful than the crosses (2.3 versus 1.6); (P<0.05).

Perennial grain production will likely present unique challenges for managing diseases that affect the productivity and longevity of crops being considered. Typical cultural practices effective at reducing soil- and residue-borne pathogens, such as annual crop rotations, delayed fall planting, and tillage, are not feasible in perennial systems. Consequently, soil- and residue-borne pathogens, and pathogens such as root colonizers and viruses that survive in live tissue, may increase in importance in a perennial grain crop. Resistance genes will undeniably be important defenses against disease. However, it is seldom, if ever, possible to incorporate within a single cultivar resistance to all existing and future important diseases. Furthermore, genes vulnerable to ‘boom and bust’ cycles are generally short-lived when deployed in monocultures. For these reasons, the use of mixtures of crop cultivars or species that vary in resistance functions will likely be an important strategy for managing diseases and pests of perennial grains. Burning of plant residue, a natural phenomenon in native perennial grass systems, may also be an effective disease management strategy. The successful implementation of these management tools may reduce or eliminate the risk that perennial grain crops will become pathogen refugia that affect neighboring annual plantings and the productivity of perennial plants.

The majority of cropland in the rain-fed region of the North Central District of Oklahoma in the US is seeded with winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) and most of it is in continuous wheat production. When annual crops are grown in monocultures, weed species and disease agents may become established and expensive to control. For many years prior to 1996, federal policy provided incentives for District producers to grow wheat and disincentives to diversify. In 1996, the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform (FAIR) Act (Freedom to Farm Act) was instituted, followed by the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act (FSRIA) in 2002. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of FAIR and FSRIA programs on crop diversity in the North Central District of Oklahoma. The economics of three systems, monoculture continuous winter wheat, continuous soybean (Glycine max) and a soybean–winter wheat–soybean rotation, were compared using cash market prices (CASH), CASH plus the effective loan deficiency payments (a yield-dependent subsidy) of the FAIR Act of 1996, and CASH plus the effective loan deficiency payments of the FSRIA of 2002. We found that the loan deficiency payment structure associated with FAIR provided a non-market incentive that favored soybean. However, under provisions of the 2002 FSRIA, the incentive for soybean was adjusted, resulting in greater expected returns for continuous wheat. Due to erratic weather, soybean may not be a good alternative for the region. Research is needed to identify crops that will fit in a rotation with wheat.

Perennial grain crops would address many agricultural problems, including soil erosion, nutrient loss and pesticide contamination. Doubts about the possibility of perennial grain crops rest upon two assumptions: (1) that the relationship between yield and longevity is a fixed function that cannot be influenced by selection, mutation or environmental changes; and (2) that yield and longevity trade off in a bivariate manner to the exclusion of all other traits. These assumptions are consistent with the phenotypic trade-off model, but recent research suggests that a quantitative genetic model is a more appropriate approach to trade-offs. In the quantitative genetic model, environmental and genetic changes can result in increases in two traits simultaneously even when a trade-off, or negative correlation, exists between the two traits. Empirical evidence that the trade-off between perenniality and reproductive allocation is not fixed comes from wild, herbaceous perennials that can produce more than 2000 kg seed ha−1 in the temperate zone, and herbaceous perennial crops that produce on average 8900 kg fruit ha−1 in the tropics. Ecological literature suggests that most perennials produce small amounts of seed relative to their vegetative growth not as a physiological absolute, but rather as a result of natural selection in a stable, competitive environment favoring longevity. By selecting strongly for seed yield in a population of perennial plants, the plant breeder can likely achieve that which is rare in nature—a high seed-yielding perennial plant. The same general methodologies that have allowed annual grain breeders to increase grain yield and push many combinations of negatively correlated traits to levels of expression not seen in nature are available to the perennial grain breeder. Perennial grain breeders are integrating ecological principles and traditional plant breeding methods in their efforts to develop perennial grain wheat (Triticum spp.), sorghum (Sorghum spp.), sunflower (Helianthus spp.), Illinois bundleflower (Desmanthus illinoensis) and rice (Oryza spp.).

Alternative crops, with appropriate markets and infrastructure, provide farmers the potential for diversification to offset financial stress caused by an overabundant supply of a limited number of species grown over a broad area. The objective of this work was to develop a model that would identify where soil and climate conditions are likely to be suitable for a large number of crops over a large geographic region. The model was used to screen 414 crops for suitability to Illinois conditions. The 414 crops were a subset of 968 candidate crops, for which crop soil (texture, pH, drainage) and climate (temperature, precipitation, growing season length, minimum winter temperature) requirements were identified from a literature search. The simple model was linked to geographic information system software to evaluate the suitability of the soil and climate conditions of Illinois. Two of the 414 crops were classified as highly suitable in more than 50% of the state's land area, 18 suitable in more than 90% of the state, and a total of 83 crops were rated as suitable to highly suitable in more than 90% of the state. Comparison of the suitability maps to known ranges of existing crops, and limited evaluation of 15 crops classified as suitable, moderately suitable and unsuitable for Urbana, Illinois conditions in a demonstration plot, showed this model's utility to a limited area, and suggests that the model can be applied to any region where geographically referenced soil and climate data either exist or can be developed.

The extension of agroecology requires an alternative extension pedagogy. Agroecology is more than merely the promotion of new technologies or practices, but rather a fresh understanding of how to optimize the configuration of biological and technological components of farming systems informed by ecological principles. This necessarily requires a shift in roles among growers and extensionists so that they can actively participate in networks of social learning. Agro-environmental partnerships have emerged in California as the primary strategy for extending alternative, agroecological knowledge in conventional agriculture. Partnerships are an intentional, multi-year relationship among at least growers, a growers' organization, and one or more scientists to extend agroecological knowledge and protect natural resources through a field-scale demonstration. Partnerships have been particularly successful in perennial crop farming systems, and have played critical roles in helping California's almond and pear growers to reduce organophosphate use by over 75%. This study provides a cross partnership comparison of grower participation in partnerships and proposes a five-part typology to rank this.