Expired air resuscitation is an essential part of first-aid and cannot be replaced by other measures. Because of the risk of transmitting infectious diseases, the use of devices is recommended. Three types are available—masks, tubes, and foils.

Six masks (Air-Vita Bi-Protect, Laerdal Pocket-mask, Dräger Hivita Mask E, Rescue-Med De-vice, Resuscitator, SealEasy Resuscitation Kit), five tube instruments (Dr. Brook Airway, Dual-Aid, Goettinger Tubus, Lifeway, Sussex Valve Airway), and two foils (Ambu Life-Key, Laerdal ResusdFace Shield) were studied.

Inspiratory and expiratory resistance, valve leakage, ability to protect against infection transmission, and practicability (e.g., possibility of training on standard mannequins, seal) were measured and tested in the laboratory.

Only a few of the mask and tube devices had low inspiratory and expiratory resistances. Some of the one-way valves failed. There were definite risks of provoking complications (vomiting, lacerations) when using tube instruments.

Devices consisting of a foil have definite advantages, and seem to be more appropriate for the use by first-aiders [first responders].

The purposes of this study are to quantify the use of nitroglycerin (NTG) in prehospital care, to detect deviations from the Standing Medical Orders (SMO), to determin the effectiveness of its administration, and the incidence of clinically significant adverse reactions (hypotension, bradycardia).

Retrospective review of 7683 Advanced Life Support (ALS) telemetry, base-station contacts over a three month period (June, July, Auguest 1990) to identify all prehospital patient contacts in which NTG was utilized.

The Resource Hospital/Telemetry Base-Station a two community hospitals/Telemetry Base-Stations for the Chicago North EMS System.

There were 445 runs in which NTG was indicated as per SMO. Two hundred eighty-eight patients (64.7%) received NTG for appropriate indications as per SMO, 203 for ischemic chest pain (45.6%), 79 for pulmonary edema (17.7%), and six for both (1.3%). There were 157 (35.5%) runs in which NTG was indicated, but not administered. There were 22 patients who received NTG for indications that deviated from the SMO. Reassessment data concerning the subjective symptom was completed on 118 patients (40.9%), 92 (45.3%) patients with chest pain and 26 with dyspnea (32.9%). Following the administration of NTG, 21 patients (10.1%) with chest pain were unchanged, while 13 with dyspnea (15.3%) improved, 13 patients (15.3%) were unchanged, and none worsened. In 121 patients, the systolic blood pressure (SBP) decreased, while 24 were unchanged (5.4%), and 28 had an increase (6.3%). The mean initial value SBP was 176±44 mmHg and the repeat mean SBP was 164±41 mmHg with a mean decrease of 12±22 mmHg. The diastolic blood pressure (DBP) decreased in 87 patients, was unchanged in 53 (11.9%), and increased in 33 (7.4%). The initial mean DBP was 97±24 mmHg, the repeat mean DBP was 92±23 mmHg, a mean decrease of 5±15 mmHg. Only one patient became hypotensive with the administration of NTG and was successfully resusticated with a fluid bolus of 300 ml normal saline.

In this EMS system, NTG is under-utilized based on the indications delineated by this system's SMOs. Reassessment is documented infrequently, but when completed, clinically significant adverse reactions are rare. Since the incidence of hypotension and bradycardia are rare, the inability to establish an IV line should not preclude the administration of NTG.

The purpose of this study is to describe treatment of asthma in children by paramedics.

Retrospective review of an advanced life support (ALS) run reports over a one-year period.

Review of paramedic response to pediatric respiratory emergencies in an urban, primarily inner-city, prioritized, dual-response emergency medical services (EMS) system.

Patients < 19 years of age complaining of shortness of breath, paramedics, pediatric residents, and attending physicians.

The medical records of 383 patients were reviewed for demographic and medical information. The population was separated into an ALS treatment group (received ALS) and a NO-ALS group (evaluation and/or oxygen only). Sixty percent of the patients (n = 231) were classified into the ALS group; 89% received epinephrine. Sixty-six percent (n = 101) of the NO-ALS patients received evaluation only, and the remaining 34% (n = 51) were evaluated and received oxygen. The ALS patients were older and had significantly higher respiratory rates and accessory muscle use than did the NO-ALS patients. Relief was reported in 66 % of ALS patients. No adverse reactions were reported in the ALS group. Determining factors influencing ALS treatment included age, the use of medications at home, wheezing, accessory muscle use, respiratory rate, and presence or absence of upper respiratory infection (URI) symptoms.

This study demonstrates that asthma constitutes the majority of pediatric emergencies in the prehospital setting in this inner-city EMS system. The ALS treatment of pediatric asthma improves patient status. Factors which may influence paramedic judgment in treating asthma in children may be inappropriate. There is a critical need for further research in the prehospital treatment of pediatric asthma and in developing education interventions directed at the entire spectrum of prehospital care of pediatric emergencies.

To examine the effects of age, race, gender, and insurance status on utilization and times-to-transport (TTT) for interhospital air medical transfers from rural hospitals to tertiary care centers.

A retrospective review of interhospital transport records. The TTT was examined as a function of age, gender, race, and insurance status using the Student's t-test for unpaired samples. The Exact Binomial Test (alpha error at 0.05) was used to compare the observed versus expected transport rates for non-whites.

A total of 268 patient transfers from hospitals within a two-county region in central Pennsylvania to tertiary care centers was analyzed. All records with sufficient demographic, TTT, or insurance data were included. Absence of data was the only exclusion.

The TTT (mean ± SD) was longer (2666 ± 3940 minutes (min.) versus 619 ± 909 min., respectively) for adult than pediatric patients (p <O1), and (2588 ± 4041 min. versus 640 ± 1301 min., respectively) for insured versus uninsured patients (p <.O1). The observed proportion of non-whites transported was less than expected (.41% versus 2.1 %) based on the proportion of non-whites in the region (p <.O5).

The TTT was longer for adults than for children and for the insured than the uninsured. Non-whites were transported less frequently than predicted.

The concept of the necessity of a good quality assurance (QA) plan for emergency medical services (EMS) is well-accepted; guidelines as how best to achieve this and how current systems operate have not been defined. The purpose of this study was to survey EMS systems to discover current methods used to perform medical control and QA and to examine whether the existence of an emergency medicine residency affected these components.

A survey was mailed in 1989 to the major teaching hospitals associated with all of the emergency medicine residency programs (n = 79) and all other hospitals with greater than 350 beds within the 50 largest United States metropolitan areas (n = 172). If no response was received, a second request was sent in 1990. The survey consisted of questions concerning four general EMS-QA categories: 1) general information; 2) prospective; 3) immediate; and 4) retrospective medical control.

Completed surveys were received from 78.5% of residency and 50% of non-residency programs. The majority had an emergency medicine physician as medical director (80.1% vs 61.5%, p = .03). While both residency and non-residency hospitals participated in initial public and prehospital personnel education, academic programs were more likely to be involved in continuing medical education (98.2% vs 82.3%, p = .009). On-line (direct) supervision was more likely to be provided by residency institutions (96.4% vs 81.0%, p = .017) which was provided by a physician in 88.3%. Trip sheet review was utilized by 62.0% of non-residency and 75.5% of residency programs responding, and utilized the paramedic coordinator (44.5% vs 46.1%) or medical director (35.7% vs 34.5 %) primarily.

This survey characterizes some of the current methods utilized nationwide in EMS-QA programs. Further research is needed to determine the effectiveness of these various methods, and to develop a model program.

Many states in the United States ‘have developed policies that enable prehospital emergency medical services (EMS) providers to withhold cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in the terminally ill. Several states also have policies that enable the implementation of do-not-resuscitate (DNR) orders.

1) assess which states have statutes governing DNR orders for the prehospital setting; 2) determine which states authorize DNR orders in ways other than by specific state statue; and 3) define those states that had regional protocols which address prehospital DNR orders.

Survey of the state EMS directors in each of the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico.

As of 1992, specific legislation authorizing the implementation of DNR orders was in place in 11 states. In addition, six others have a legal opinion or policy allowing the implementation of DNR orders. Fourteen additional states have either working groups or legislation pending that address prehospital DNR orders. In only five were there no existing regional protocols for implementation of DNR orders in the prehospital setting.

There exists great variation in legal authorization by states for implementation of DNR orders in the prehospital setting. Despite the existence of enabling legislation, many state, regional, or local EMS systems have implemented policies dealing with DNR orders.

To assess the effectiveness of the use of dobutamine hydrochloride in out-of hospital emergency situations.

Patients with severe circulatory insufficiency caused by acute illness or injury encountered by the Mobile Intensive Care Unit of Copenhagen (population 467,000) during a 15-month study period.

A newly developed dobutamine solution was administered by infusion pump to patients in whom normal emergency treatment failed to restore an acceptable circulatory state.

A total of 40 patients were treated with 4–48 μg dobutamine/kg/minute. The treatment was judged to be primary life-saving in 15 patients, the condition was improved in 16 patients, and nine patients died. Systolic blood pressures (in those who survived) rose from a mean value of 45 mmHg (range 0–80 mmHg) to 105 mmHg (range 65–180 mmHg). No tachycardia or arrhythmias were noted.

This newly developed dobutamine solution is very useful in prehospital treatment of patients with circulatory failure and is recommend for use by mobile intensive care unit teams.

The standard of practice and teaching for prehospital pediatric endotracheal intubation (PETI) in the United States currently is unknown. The accepted practice of prehospital PETI is of interest because it has contradictory support in the medical literature.

PETI is an accepted method of prehospital airway control in the United States.

Nationwide mail survey (June 1991 to March 1992) of each state emergency medical service (EMS) agency and all known paramedic training sites.

The use of PETI is supported by 100% of state EMS agencies and the American Virgin Islands. Ninety-seven percent (339 of 349) of the responding (349 of 523) paramedic training sites reported that PETI was taught in their programs. The results of the survey did not identify a predominate method for instructing paramedics in PETI. Lectures, mannequins, operating room demonstration, animal models, and cadavers were used in various ways for teaching the skill.

Endotracheal intubation is an accepted standard in prehospital pediatric care. This standard exists with marginal support in published literature and study of prehospital PETI is needed to define the benefits, risks, and optimal instruction methods for the procedure.

Privately transported, major trauma patients made up approximately 4% of the total trauma patients population at a major, regional trauma center which treats over 90% of all major trauma victims in the geographic area. This study was undertaken to evaluate the patient profile of those individuals who did not access 9-1-1 for transport to a trauma center, including their reasons for such non-use.

Data on all major trauma occurring within Dade County, Florida, were collected by the county trauma registry.

In the last six months of 1989, 1,672 patients were entered into the trauma registry. One-thousand-six-hundred-thirteen (1,613) were transported by professional ground or air services, 59 by private vehicle. For those patients transported directly from the Emergency Department to the Operating Room, only 35% of private vehicle patients entered surgery within 90 minutes of presentation compared to 57% of those who gained access to the 9-1-1 system and used emergency medical services (EMS). One-half of those patients who did not use 9-1-1 did not have telephone access. Patient acuity was similar for those transported by private vehicle compared to those transported by basic or advanced life support units. Private vehicle transport often delayed patient triage and assessment. Thus, for a number of lower income patients, 9-1-1 access was difficult.

Underestimation of the severity of the injury or fear of delay in rescue response were prominent reasons for non-use of 9-1-1. While educational efforts should concentrate on decreasing inappropriate 9-1-1 use for nonemergencies, the causes of underutilization should not be ignored.