Australia, a leading Antarctic state that played a key role in negotiating the Convention for the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities, in May 1989 announced its opposition to the Convention and adoption instead of a World Park or Wilderness Reserve concept for Antarctica. This article examines possible environmental and economic reasons for Australia's attitude, which is likely to have significant implications for the future of the Convention and for the Antarctic Treaty System as a whole.

The Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP) was established under the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty to advise the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) on matters relating to protection of the Antarctic environment. After almost a decade of work, the committee has consolidated itself as a highly relevant and important component of the Antarctic Treaty system. Through a detailed analysis of meeting reports, as well as first-hand information and experience, this study describes the activities of the CEP during its first nine years of operation, provides likely explanations for some trends observed and proposes future scenarios by highlighting major challenges and opportunities. In particular, the instigation of strategic planning shows potential for launching a new era of CEP activities focused on the environmental issues requiring the greatest attention. This overview will assist readers to understand the role of the CEP as the main environmental advisor to the ATCM, and the reasons for the Antarctic Treaty parties to support the Committee's work to foster a spirit of cooperation as a prerequisite for continuing protection of the Antarctic environment.

This paper aims to elucidate the important economic and political aspects of an extremely complex policy issue involving biological prospecting (bioprospecting) in Antarctica. In addressing this rapidly growing global industry, which searches for commercially valuable biological and genetic resources in a world of biological diversity, it becomes obvious that a critical interface exists between Antarctica and the intertwined bioprospecting policies brought forth during recent decades by two treaties, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The analytical framework of the paper builds upon the economic concept of public goods within a political framework of international treaties and law. The concept of a national public good, associated with the sovereignty of a state (nation) over its biological and genetic resources, is the basis of such policy under the Biological Diversity Treaty. In practice, this jurisdiction applies both to the land area of a state and to the exclusive economic zone of a coastal state. The Law of the Sea Treaty, on the other hand, provides both a national public good connotation to exclusive economic zones while creating a global public good connotation for deep seabed mineral resources, with a related potential application to bioprospecting in the deep seabed. While the Antarctic Treaty System possesses several institutions that could be adapted to a bioprospecting policy regime, no such regime has been established up to the present. The paper concludes with a consideration of the critical question: is bioprospecting in Antarctica a national or global public good? While logic would appear to lead one toward the ‘global’ answer, multinational economic and political realities in today's world suggest that either a national public good approach, or a largely unregulated open access approach, is more likely to prevail.

This paper describes a preliminary investigation of the extent to which the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI), derived from satellite optical imagery, can indicate the extent of damage to upland tundra (fruticose lichen and dwarf shrub) vegetation. We combine the results of a previously reported classification of Landsat multispectral scanner imagery from Kol'skiy Poluostrov, Russia, with field measurements of the biomass and spectral reflectance of tundra vegetation. The results show that the NDVI is not strongly influenced by biomass, but that differences in species composition and ground cover are significant. Other workers have concluded that vegetation indices are not useful for boreal forests. It is therefore suggested that the use of the NDVI by itself as an indicator of the state of disturbed vegetation in Arctic regions is not recommended.

Alexander Theodor von Middendorff's name is closely associated with the exploration of Siberia and research on the natural history of the Russian Arctic. Yet it is surprising that, in the extensive literature in Russian and German on the environment of those regions, there are no specific analyses of Middendorff's important contribution to these areas of research. He is barely mentioned in English language studies on the history of exploration and science in Siberia and there are very few accounts of his life and work. The present paper is largely based on a number of newly discovered archival documents and contemporary literary sources and is an attempt to fill this lacuna. In this account, all dates are given according to the new style calendar.

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), also known as drones, are used in scientific research and a diverse range of other applications across the globe. They are also being used increasingly for scientific research in Antarctica and to a lesser extent by tourists visiting the world's last great frontier tourist destination. Their use in scientific research in Antarctica offers many benefits to science and if used responsibly may be less invasive than other research techniques, offering a rich source of new scientific data. For tourists, UAVs also offer unique aerial photographic perspectives on Antarctica — the ultimate holiday snap shot. Concerns have been raised about the safety of drone use in the harsh and unpredictable Antarctic conditions, as well as possible environmental impacts. This paper considers these issues and the emerging regulatory response to drone use in Antarctica focusing on the Antarctic Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) Operator's Handbook, which provides guidelines to national Antarctic programmes on the use of UAVs in the Antarctic Treaty area, and the temporary ban on use of drones by tourists imposed by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). Both measures arguably constitute a good first response to this emerging issue, although more still needs to be done.

In the Southern Ocean, fishing for finfish began in 1969/70 and for krill in 1972/73. The Soviet Union was the most important fishing nation, taking 80–90% of the entire catch. More than 3 million tonnes of finfish wereharvested prior to 1992/93, most of the catch coming from around South Georgia and lies Kerguelen. After 15 years of exploitation, most fish stocks were heavily depleted. The krill catch from the Southern Ocean has been 4.9 million tonnes to date. More than 90% of this catch has originated from the Atlantic sector. 50–90% is taken from the foraging range of land-based predators during the critical period of their breeding cycle when they raise their young. This creates the potential for direct competition between krill fisheries and krill-dependent predators. Potential impacts of krill and finfishing on the ecosystems of the Southern Ocean range from endangering recruitment due to the by-catch of juvenile fish in the krill fishery to incidental mortality of birds during longline operations and the entanglement of seals in fragments of discarded or lost fishing gear.

Most fish stocks had already been over-exploited before the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) came into force in 1982. Stringent conservation measures to halt the further decline of the stocks have been implemented only since 1989. There is evidence that some fish stocks have started to recover recently. Precautionary catch limits for krill of 1.5 million tonnes for the Atlantic sector (Statistical Area 48), and of 390, 000 tonnes for Statistical Division 58. 4.2 in the Indian sector, were set in 1991 and 1992, respectively. CCAMLR has implemented a number of conservation measures to safeguard other components of the marine ecosystems from fishing. CCAMLR adopted a system of inspection in 1989/90 and a scheme of international scientific observation in 1992. It is too early to judge the efficacy of these enforcement and data-gathering programmes.

There is a growing recognition in CCAMLR of the need for preventati ve measures in circumstances of biological uncertainty. The development of multi-species management models appears to be remote at present. The way forward is likely to be a single-species model for the krill fishery, which needs to take implicit account of the demands of natural predators, particularly at small scales. If demersal fish stocks are able to recover to their maximum sustainable yield level, the fishery potential of the Southern Ocean is likely to be much larger than current catches. The fishery potential of krill and mesopelagic lanternfish is likely to exceed that of demersal fish stocks by an order of magnitude. By contrast with the 1970s and 1980s, when most fisheries were subsidized, economic considerations and market demands will be the primary determinants of the development of fishing in southern waters during the 1990s.

There is an urgent need to develop new technologies to address the problem of soil remediation in high-latitude regions. A field study was initiated in January 1997 in two contaminated soils in Terre Adélie (Antarctica) with the objective of determining the long-term effectiveness of two bioremediation agents on total and hydrocarbon-degrading microbial assemblages under severe Antarctic conditions. This study was conducted in two steps, from January to July 1997 and from February to November 1999 in the Géologie Archipelago (Terre Adélie, 66°40′S, 140°01′E). Changes in bacterial communities were monitored in situ after crude oil or diesel addition in a series of 600 cm2 soil sectors (20×30 cm). Four contaminated sectors were used for each experiment: diesel oil (10 ml), diesel oil (10 ml) + fertilizer (1 ml), Arabian light crude oil (10 ml), and crude oil (10 ml) + fertilizer (1 ml). Two different bioremediation agents were used: a slow release fertilizer Inipol EAP-22 (Elf Atochem) in 1997 and a fish compost in 1999. Plots were sampled on a regular basis during a three-year period. All samples were analysed for total, saprophytic psychrophilic, and hydrocarbon-utilising bacteria. A one order of magnitude increase of saprophytic and hydrocarbon-utilising micro-organisms occurred during the first month of the experiment in most of the contaminated enclosures, but no clear differences appeared between fertilized and unfertilized plots. Diesel-oil contamination induced a significant increase of all bacterial parameters in all contaminated soils. Crude-oil contamination had no clear effects on microbial assemblages. It was clear that the microbial response could be rapid and efficient in spite of the severe weather conditions. However, microbial growth was not clearly improved in the presence of bioremediation agents.

The state of pastures in the Finnish reindeer management area has been monitored since 1995 using remote sensing and field inventory. The first inventory was made in 1995–1996, updated in the beginning of 2000s and repeated in 2005–2008. By comparing results from 1995–1996 and 2005–2008 we can observe clear changes in forest cover, structure and ground lichen abundance. To evaluate pasture/vegetation changes on the basis of separate classifications we have used a grid approach. By implementing a 500 by 500 m grid network and summarizing pasture classes for every grid cell we can visualize and quantify intensity of change. By comparing 1995–1996 and 2005–2008 we can see a clear decrease in the number of cells classified old growth dominated forest, and also an increase of fragmentation can be detected. With a 7.5 ha threshold the amount of old growth forest was reduced by 5%, for 20 ha the decrease was 21%. This indicates a significant change in forest landscape structure, fragmentation and reduction of reindeer winter pasture value in large areas. Pixel wise comparison showed no substantial changes in pasture areas. There is a degree of uncertainty in change detection; changes in remote sensing instrument, changes in processing software and methodology, changes in field methods and ancillary data, and obviously also bias introduced by differences between analysts. When comparing reindeer lichen biomass between 1995–1996 and 2005–2008 on the basis of field site data, the measured lichen biomass has declined in 19 out of the 20 reindeer management districts. Only one district showed slight improvement, in three districts there was a notable drop in lichen biomass, from over 1500 kg/ha to about 500 kg/ha. Also amount of arboreal lichens declined due to felling of old growth forest, confirming the findings on the grid cell level. Consequently grass, shrub and sapling stands increased as felled areas start to grow graminoids and herbs.

A concise account of exotic terrestrial mammals known to have been introduced in Antarctica and the 19 peri-Antarctic islands is provided. This includes the entire region currently relevant to the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. Of the 24 introduced species 10 are extant at one or more locations in 2011. Some species have had a widespread distribution and others are represented by one, or a few, individuals. The majority arrived as deliberate introductions but that of some was adventitious. Details of their dates of introduction, current status, and indications of environmental effects, are tabulated. Current eradication programmes are noted.

The ratification of the Antarctic Treaty established a unique construct for human presence and activity in Antarctica. The designation of the continent for peace and science has inspired and informed the work of artists from across the world. This paper explores relationships between the Treaty and contemporary visual artists’ responses to Antarctica. Using data from interviews with scientists, cultural professionals and exhibition audiences, I explore the value to science and society of artists’ presence in Antarctica. I look at why in the last 2 years the number of artists being supported to work in Antarctica has declined and conclude with some observations on how this downward trend might be addressed.

In June 1988, at the final session of the Fourth Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting in Wellington, New Zealand, the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA) was adopted, bringing to a successful conclusion six years of negotiations. Christopher Beeby, chairman of the discussions, presented the convention as the most important political development affecting Antarctica since the 1959 treaty, especially as it established the ability of the Antarctic Treaty System to reach an internal accommodation even upon matters raising serious political, legal, environmental and other issues. There remain uncertainties regarding the future development of the Antarctic minerals question; for example, when will the minerals convention and the proposed institutional framework come into effect, will its ratification encourage mining, can the fragile Antarctic environment be adequately protected against mining, how will certain key terms and concepts be defined, and will the regime's operation bring latent tensions to the surface? It is also difficult to predict how other governments will react to the convention, in the light of recent UN resolutions on Antarctica. The convention is perceived within the Antarctic Treaty system as a significant development, but it will be some time before a considered evaluation of the Antarctic Minerals Regime can be conducted.

The Inuvialuit Region of the Canadian western Arctic continues to support a variety of land-based activities as part of the regional mixed economy. Tourism development, one of the newer elements of the mixed economy, has potential to conflict with beluga whale hunting, one of the traditional activities. The paper asks the question: can local employment be created through nature-based tourism development in Inuvik, Aklavik, and Tuktoyaktuk in the Inuvialuit Region in ways that support the local mixed economy and minimize conflict with the traditional sector? Results of interviews with Inuvialuit elders and tour operators indicate that both parties regard tourism as a desirable employment option and a creator of economic benefits, with relatively few economic drawbacks and relatively little environmental concern. The problem, however, is that tourism also brings with it social impacts and cultural drawbacks that are, in the Inuvialuit view, mostly related to (a) intrusiveness of tourists, especially in relation to the beluga hunt; (b) representation of the aboriginal hunt in a negative light; and (c) commodification of culture. On the balance, nature-based tourism development has the capability to support the local mixed economy, subject to resolving the conflict between beluga whaling activities and tourists. Fundamentally, however, the conflict is between Inuvialuit lifestyles and values versus the values and expectations of tourists.

A programme to monitor non-breeding bird species in the vicinity of Arctowski Station, King George Island, South Shetlands, Antarctica, has been conducted over the past 30 years. The white-rumped sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis (Vieillot 1819) seems to occur now as a vagrant in South Shetlands area more frequently than previously. This trend, and the annual variation in numbers that have been observed could be a result of short term and longer term variation in weather and climate conditions during the austral spring and summer months when this species is observed. A higher air temperature, which is a result of predominant northern winds bringing relatively warm and moist air, would probably result in more open habitats and better food resources that would allow the birds to persist or survive.

Climate models predict a substantial warming at high latitudes following the enhanced greenhouse effect caused by anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and various other trace gases. Arctic and sub-Arctic soils contain large amounts of organic carbon that could be made increasingly available for decomposition in a wanner climate due to deepening of the biologically-active layer and increased thermokarst erosion. This produces the potential for increased emissions of CO2 and CH4 from tundra areas and thus positive (enhancing) feedback effects on the greenhouse effect. From being a net absorber of CO2 the global tundra areas could become a net source of up to 1.25 Gt C yr1 as a result of the predicted warmer and dryer conditions during the thaw period. CH4 is at least 21 times more effective as a greenhouse gas than CO2. How the CH4 balance in the tundra will respond to climate change is therefore very important but also much less certain. Estimates of total present CH4 emissions from northern wetlands vary greatly, ranging from 2.4 to 106 Tg CH4 yr1 and little is known about the mechanisms controlling the flux. There are indications, however, that if the tundra becomes wetter under warming, CH4 emissions would probably increase. If it becomes dryer, the emissions could cease or even turn the tundra into a sink for atmospheric CH4, partly due to increasing microbial consumption of CH4 in the soil. There is an urgent need for more research into the processes controlling the CH4 flux in Arctic and sub-Arctic soils.

The use of SCUBA diving techniques in the study of sublittoral fauna has been shown to be valuable in temperate and tropical waters, and many workers are presently using underwater photography and systematic sampling techniques to gain a more complete picture of plant and animal life in the sea. The use of these techniques in Antarctica in recent years has made possible sampling of previously unexplored areas.

This paper presents the results of a radiocarbon dating study of snow petrel (Pagodroma nivea) nest sites in central Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica. Mumiyo (a sub-fossilized accumulation of regurgitated proventricular oil) samples were collected from 15 snow petrel nest sites at nunataks in the northern Ahlmannryggen, Gjelsvikfjella, and Mühlig-Hofmannfjella.

Radiocarbon dating revealed Holocene ages of ca 8500 years and less for all but one of these mumiyo samples. A sample collected at S varthamaren in the Muhlig-Hofmannfjella was dated as old as ca 34,000 a BP, indicating that at least some areas of that mountain escaped the scouring action of glaciers during the last glacial period. Similar pre-Holocene ages have been determined for a small number of mumiyo samples in previous studies. Mumiyo accumulations from some nests indicate periods of occupation as long as 6000 years, whereas the radiocarbon age and volume of other mumiyo samples suggest short periods of frequent nesting activity. As expected, sub-samples extracted from the lower layers of mumiyo pieces generally displayed greater ages than sub-samples from upper layers of the same piece. However, there was no clear-cut correlation between the age of a mumiyo sample and its height above the present ice level. It is suspected that this lack of correlation is due to some of the mumiyo samples being displaced previously through rockfalls.

Controlling visitor impacts in polar regions continues to be important in both the Antarctic and Arctic. Concerns relate to impacts on the physical environment, cultural heritage, and host communities or scientific bases, as well as a recognition that safety and liability are major issues for governments, commercial operators, and local populations. Strategies for controlling tourists include visitor and operator codes and formal legislation. This paper summarises several approaches to visitor regulation in polar regions in order to illustrate the ways in which concerns about tourist impacts are being addressed. Similar issues arise throughout the polar regions, although in some places a particular emphasis might indicate a specific area of concern for a community, region, nation, or segment of the tourism industry. While a comprehensive strategy might be appropriate in many respects in the Arctic, it is also important to acknowledge the significance of more specific concerns. This paper first describes regulation of tourist behaviour and considers general issues of strategy effectiveness. Then it examines the approaches to visitor regulation used in the Antarctic and on S valbard as examples that may be of use in the further development of strategies in the Arctic. The paper then discusses an evolving strategy for control in the Northwest Territories, Canada. This strategy differs from these other approaches in that it targets a specific segment of the visitor population: those undertaking adventure expeditions.

On 12 May 2011 at the seventh ministerial meeting, the member states of the Arctic Council (AC) signed the Arctic SAR agreement, the first legally binding agreement negotiated under the auspices of the AC. Its objective is to strengthen search and rescue cooperation and coordination in the Arctic. The purpose of this article is to explore why an agreement on search and rescue under the auspices of the AC has been negotiated; what its key features are; and lastly, how it is and will be implemented. It is argued that the SAR agreement is more important for the AC than for Norway. It has had limited practical consequences in that country. The agreement may be politically and symbolically significant but it has neither financially nor organisationally changed Norwegian search and rescue policy.

The Birnirk culture is important in Inupiak Eskimo prehistory because the Thule and Western Thule cultures and all recent prehistoric Eskimo cultures derive from it. Its appearance on the American side of Bering Strait has puzzled archaeologists because it is linked to the cultures of the Asian side of the strait and is not lineally related to the cultures, Norton and Ipiutak, that it replaced in Alaska. Recent excavations at Cape Nome, Alaska, have shed light on the nature of this replacement. I carried out these excavations during 1969–71 under the auspices of the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania and under the supervision of Professor Froelich Rainey. The University Museum and the Explorers Club gave financial assistance.