3.a. Type area in the western Range

Upper Cretaceous clastic sediments are exposed in a regionally persistent thrust sheet of meta-carbonates that dominates the northern flank of the western and central range (Fig. 1, cross-section). In some sections the Upper Maastrichtian carbonate breccias and basal pelagic carbonates pass upwards into calcareous sandstones and sandy calcarenites. Similar sandstones were previously recognized locally in the central Kyrenia Range, where they were termed the Kiparisso Vouno Formation by Baroz (Reference Baroz1979; Fig. 2). A Late Cretaceous age (Late Campanian) was suggested based on planktonic foraminifera within ‘associated’ pelagic carbonates. Baroz (Reference Baroz1979) was unsure if the contact with the underlying Trypa Group was depositional or tectonic. Robertson & Woodcock (Reference Robertson, Woodcock, Reading, Watterson and White1986) inferred the contact to be depositional but field relations remained unclear. Hakyemez et al. (Reference Hakyemez, Turhan, Sönmez and Sümengen2000) later included clastic sediments that appear to be equivalent to the Kiparisso Vouno Formation of Baroz (1970) within a zone of imbricated thrust sheets exposed near Alevkaya Tepe (Kiparisso Vouno). These critical field relations were clarified during this work.

The unconformity between the recrystallized neritic carbonates of the St Hilarion (Hileryon) Formation and the Upper Cretaceous cover succession (Lapithos (Lapta) Group) was mapped discontinuously for ~ 20 km within a single thrust sheet. This is exposed along the northern flank of the western part of the central Kyrenia Range (east and west of Area 5 in Fig. 1). The ‘Kiparisso Vouno Formation’ was found to be a stratigraphic intercalation within the Melounda (Mallıdağ) Formation. Baroz's (Reference Baroz1979) Kiparisso Vouno Formation is, therefore, here redefined as the Kiparisso Vouno (Alevkaya Tepe) Member of the Melounda (Mallıdağ) Formation (Fig. 2).

Details of the type section of the Kiparisso Vouno (Alevkaya Tepe) Member are given in Figure 3a.

Basal sedimentary breccias are dominated by angular clasts of recrystallized limestone and psammitic metamorphic rocks, together with polycrystalline quartz and rare grains of muscovite schist (Fig. 5a). Medium-grained calcareous sandstone and shales (~ 25 m thick) are seen above this, although exposure is poor. Sandstones (Fig. 5b) studied in five thin-sections are compositionally similar, mainly made up of marble, recrystallized dolomite, polycrystalline quartz (paraquartzite), unstrained quartz (of probable plutonic origin) and muscovite schist (locally folded). Rare grains of micrite contain occasional planktonic foraminifera (unrecrystallized), thin-walled shell fragments and altered basalt (mainly as rounded lumps). There are also scattered grains of biotite, plagioclase and chloritized lava. Rare small grains of tourmaline, epidote, sphene and phrenite are also present. Sparse grains of altered diabase (with intersertal plagioclase), pyroxene, altered basalt (with feldspar microphenocrysts) and microcrystalline quartz (recrystallized chert) are also seen. Several samples include numerous grains of microbial carbonate, micritic limestone with planktonic foraminifera (e.g. reworked Heterohelicidae), rare benthic foraminifera and shell fragments.

Figure 5. Photomicrographs of grains within sandstone turbidites of the Maastrichtian Kiparisso Vouno (Alevkaya Tepe) Member. (a) Basal breccia. Angular clasts of recrystallized limestone (marble) derived from the St Hilarion (Hileryon) Formation, with a matrix of ferruginous and calcareous siltstone; base of type section of the Kiparisso Vouno (Alevkaya Tepe) Member of the Melounda (Mallıdağ) Formation; locality 5 on Fig. 1. (b) Schist grains together with quartz, biotite, chlorite and calcite spar cement; upper level of the Kiparisso Vouno (Alevkaya Tepe) Member type section; same locality as (a). (c) Detrital grains including folded mylonite and metamorphic quartz (polycrystalline quartz) with a calcite spar cement. From calcareous sandstone turbidites interbedded with more carbonate-rich turbidites and pelagic carbonates; facies equivalent of the Kiparisso Vouno (Alevkaya Tepe) Member; locality 4 on Fig. 1. (d) Detrital grain of basalt with feldspar microphenocrysts in a mesostasis of chloritized glass; set with other detrital grains in a calcite spar cement; same locality as (c). (e) Detrital grains of radiolarian chert and metamorphic quartz within a sparse muddy matrix showing pressure solution cleavage together with a calcite spar cement; same locality as (c). (f) Detrital grains of microbial carbonate (calcareous algae) and quartz in a calcite spar cement; same locality as (c). Abbreviations: B – basalt with feldspar microphenocrysts; BI – biotite, CA – calcite cement; MA – matrix, M – mylonite (folded); MC – microbial carbonate; MI – mylonitic schist; MS – muscovite schist; MQ – metamorphic quartz (quartzite), MU – muscovite; RC – radiolarian chert; RL – recrystallized limestone (marble); Q – quartz.

Comparable sandstones were observed ~ 1 km westwards on strike from the type section in a small area that straddles the range crest road (Fig. 3bi, bii). These sandstones are correlated with the Kiparisso Vouno (Alevkaya Tepe) Member. They are interbedded with pelagic carbonates of the Melounda (Mallıdağ) Formation that contain a rich assemblage of Upper Cretaceous planktonic foraminifera (Fig. 3biii; Fig. 6f, m). Elsewhere, the Melounda (Mallıdağ) Formation as a whole has been dated as Late Maastrichtian in age (Hakyemez et al. Reference Hakyemez, Turhan, Sönmez and Sümengen2000). Hemipelagic carbonates are interbedded with fine- to medium-grained, thin- to medium-bedded calcareous sandstones and sandy calcarenites (~ 10 m thick). These contain abundant grains of marble, quartz, metamorphic quartz and muscovite schist (rarely folded), together with rare, angular fragments of altered basalt and red radiolarian chert (angular to sub-rounded), rare finely crystalline grey serpentinite, green chloritic grains, red mudstone and rare plagioclase (with microlitic inclusions), pyroxene, feldspar and biotite (Fig. 5c–f). The matrix is micritic, with scattered echinoderm plates, rare planktonic foraminifera (including Globotruncanidae) and microbial carbonate. Pelagic carbonate follows then the succession is truncated by a thrust (Fig. 3biii).

Figure 6. Photomicrographs illustrating key age-diagnostic foraminifera from the Kyrenia Range. (a) Rugoglobigerina sp., sample 06/21b; (b) Rugoglobigerina scotti (Brönnimann), sample 06/2a; (c) Globotruncana falsostuarti Sigal, sample 06/11a; (d1, d2) Gansserina gansseri (Bolli), samples 06/11d, 3a; (e) Contusotruncana fornicata (Plummer), sample 06/11d; (f, g) Contusotruncana contusa (Cushman), samples 06/10a, 11a; (h) Abatomphalus mayaroensis (Bolli), sample 06/21b; (i) Globotruncanita stuartiformis (Dalbiez), sample 06/11d; (j) Globotruncanita stuarti (De Lapparent), sample 06/10a; (k) Globotruncana cf. bulloides Vogler, sample 06/2a; (l, m) Globanomalina pseudomenardii (Bolli), samples 06/9a, 09/39; (n) Acarinina sp., sample 09/39; (o) Morozovella sp., sample 09/39; (p) Morozovella aequa (Cushman & Renz), sample 06/9a; (q1, q2) Morozovella velascoensis (Cushman), samples 09/39, 09/24; (r1, r2) Morozovella spinulosa (Cushman), sample 06/9b; (s) Acarinina bullbrooki (Bolli), sample 06/9b; (t) Morozovella sp., sample 06/9b; (u1, u2) Globigerinatheka sp., sample 06/9b; (v) Subbotina sp. and Globigerinoides sp, sample 06/18b; (w) Orbulina sp., sample 09/23; (y) Planorbulina sp., sample 09/23. Scale bars: 0.2 mm.

The Upper Cretaceous succession (Fig. 3a, b) can be traced westwards for ~ 3 km within the same large thrust sheet to Area 4 (Karşıyaka (Vasileia)) on the lower northern flanks of the range. However, Upper Maastrichtian sandstone turbidites of the Kiparisso Vouno (Alevkaya Tepe) Member are absent in this area (Fig. 3cii).

Where present, the turbidites of the Kiparisso Vouno (Alevkaya Tepe) Member appear to have filled in seafloor depressions in the unconformity surface rather than forming a laterally continuous blanket above the Mesozoic meta-carbonate platform. The clastic sediment was mainly derived from continental crust, in the form of quartz, schist and marble, together with minor neritic and pelagic carbonate.

The obvious source of the Upper Maastrichtian clastic sediments is the underlying metamorphosed carbonate platform that includes schistose and pelitic intercalations. However, the detrital grains are relatively fine and well sorted suggesting a distal source in contrast to the basal carbonate breccias. The basalt is unrepresented in the Trypa (Tripa) Group. Also, the neritic carbonate grains (microbial carbonate; benthic foraminifera; shell fragments) indicate a shallow-marine setting that is not known in the Maastrichtian of the Kyrenia Range. On the other hand, the intraclasts of pelagic carbonate were probably reworked from the local Upper Maastrichtian pelagic succession.

3.b. Comparable exposures

Baroz (Reference Baroz1979) mentions one other outcrop of his Kiparisso Vouno Formation, which is on the northern flank of the central range at the same structural level as the type section further west (Fig. 1, Area 6). After a search, a small outcrop described by Baroz (Reference Baroz1979) was located within a small stream valley above cliffs (accessible only from above), southeast of Beylerbey (Bellapais) (Fig. 7a). Baroz (Reference Baroz1979) mapped Upper Cretaceous clastic sediments faulted against marbles of the St Hilarion (Hileryon) Formation (to the south). These were shown as being depositionally overlain by Palaeogene pelagic carbonates of the Ayios Nicolaos (Yamaçköy) Formation (to the north). However, several differences were noted during this work (Fig. 7b). Massive to crudely bedded marbles of the St Hilarion (Hileryon) Formation dip steeply southwards and are in thrust contact with a thin sliver of altered basalt, above (Fig. 7b). This is tectonically overlain by a short interval of sandstone and microconglomerate, only several metres thick. Baroz (Reference Baroz1979) reported a conformable upwards transition from Upper Cretaceous clastic sediments to Palaeogene pelagic chalks. However, the clastic and pelagic sediments are separated by a shear plane. The overlying pelagic chalk contains well-preserved planktonic foraminifera of Late Paleocene age (see Fig. 6q1, q2; Table 2).

Figure 7. Field relations of several outcrops in the central Kyrenia Range that are correlated with the Maastrichtian Kiparisso Vouno (Alevkaya Tepe) Member; 1 km east of Ayia Marina chapel, near Beylerbey (Bellapais). (a) Outline geological map of the area south of Beylerbey (Bellapais), showing the location of the stream section studied in detail. (b) Local geological sketch map of the outcrop that matches the drawing and description of Baroz (Reference Baroz1979). Steeply dipping, nearly massive marble (Trypa (Tripa) Gp) is in thrust-fault contact with a small wedge of very altered volcanic rocks, in turn followed by siliciclastic sediments. Fine- to medium-grained sandstones at the base are overlain by fine- to medium-grained, medium-bedded micaceous sandstone (1.8 m); medium-bedded coarse sandstone (0.6 m), well-cemented massive, pebbly sandstone (1.7 m), with well-rounded pebbles of red chert, basalt and marble (< 1 cm in size), and finally by medium–coarse-grained sandstone. A 10 cm break in exposure masks a shear plane, followed by relatively deformed but well-bedded pink chalk with scattered angular clasts of altered lava and some chert (0.3 m in size). Near the base the pelagic chalk contains a thin bed (< 5 cm) of breccia/conglomerate with marble clasts, up to 1.5 cm in size.

Table 2. Summary of the main Cenozoic species of planktonic and benthic foraminifera identified during this study, utilizing the biozonation scheme of Sartorio & Venturini (1988)

* See Appendix Table A2 for location data.

Fine-grained calcareous sandstones near the base of the local succession contain quartz, polycrystalline (metamorphic quartz), mica schist, rare plagioclase, rare chlorite and numerous planktonic foraminifera, also sparse, reworked planktonic foraminifera dated as Late Campanian–Maastrichtian in age (sample K/09/21; see Table 1). Coarser sandstones and pebblestones above this include abundant grains and clasts of metamorphic rocks (marble, polycrystalline quartz, mica schist), igneous rocks (fresh and altered basalt, pyroxene, serpentinite) and both pelagic and neritic sedimentary rocks (e.g. variably recrystallized radiolarian chert). Some chert grains and pebbles are moderately to well rounded suggesting extended transport prior to deposition. Illustrations are shown in the online Appendix at http://journals.cambridge.org/geo.

Additional exposures on the hillside further southeast (~ 1 km SE of Beylerbey (Bellapais; Fig. 7a) were not mentioned by Baroz (Reference Baroz1979). Pelagic carbonate there is interbedded with silty marl and thin- to medium-bedded, fine- to medium-grained, graded sandstones and pebblestones (in a ~ 2.5 m thick exposure). These sediments overlie a large, laterally persistent thrust sheet of Mesozoic meta-carbonate rocks, although the contact is not exposed. A smaller thrust sheet of similar meta-carbonate rocks overlies the succession.

The interbedded sandstones contain abundant grains of marble, metamorphic quartz and schist, together with abundant serpentinite, aphyric basalt, pyroxene-phyric basalt (relatively fresh and altered), dolerite (commonly altered), radiolarite (variably recrystallized), green and (rarely) blue chloritic grains, rare volcanic glass (hyaloclastite), plagioclase (relatively unaltered and altered), alkali feldspar (relatively altered) and pyroxene. Fragments of shell-rich micrite, large bivalve shells, polyzoan fragments, benthic foraminifera and rare planktonic foraminifera are also present (see online Appendix at http://journals.cambridge.org/geo). Three samples of calcareous sandstone (see Table 1) yielded reworked planktonic foraminifera of generally Late Cretaceous age (09/21), or a more precise Late Campanian–Maastrichtian age (samples 09/18 & 09/19).

The sandstone turbidites from the two outcrops in the Beylerbey (Bellapais) area (Fig. 7; Area 6 in Fig. 1) differ from the type area of the Kiparisso Vouno (Alevkaya Tepe) Member further west mainly owing to the presence of abundant ophiolite-related material (e.g. chert, basalt, serpentinite). There is little evidence that ophiolitic rocks were emplaced in the Kyrenia Range during Late Cretaceous time. However, possible source areas include ophiolitic rocks exposed in the Tauride Mountains to the north or potentially beneath the intervening Cilicia Basin (Okay & Özgül, Reference Okay, Özgül, Dixon and Robertson1984; Robertson, Reference Robertson, Frostick and Steel1993; Kelling et al. Reference Kelling, Gökçen, Floyd and Gökçen1987; Robertson et al. Reference Robertson, Unlügenç, İnan and Taslı2004).

4.a. Silicic volcanogenic sequence

Sizeable areas of the western Kyrenia Range are characterized by silicic tuffaceous rocks and rhyolitic lava flows (termed the Yıldıztepe Volcanics by Hakyemez et al. Reference Hakyemez, Turhan, Sönmez and Sümengen2000). These volcanic rocks are well exposed in the Geçiköy (Panagra) area (Area 2 in Fig. 1; Fig. 8) and the Selvilitepe (Fourkovouno) area (Area 3 in Fig. 1; Fig. 9), and are also known in a separate outcrop further west near Kayalar (Orga) (Area 1 in Fig 1; Fig. 10). Tiny outcrops of siliceous volcanics have also been mapped further east (e.g. NE of Aşağı Dikmen (Kato Dikomon)) between thrust sheets of marble (Baroz, Reference Baroz1979). Small exposures of silicic volcanic rocks are also seen between Upper Cretaceous pelagic limestones in the eastern Kyrenia Range (N of Ergenekon (Ayios Chariton)).

Figure 8. Field relations of Upper Cretaceous volcanic and sedimentary rocks exposed near Geçiköy (Panagra) in the western Kyrenia Range (Area 2 in Fig. 1). (a) Outline geological map based on Baroz (Reference Baroz1979), Moore (Reference Moore1960) and this work. The area is dominated by a recumbent SE-verging anticline of inferred Late Miocene–earliest Pliocene age. (b) Measured log of the section marked b on the map in (a). The lower part comprises well-bedded tuff with coarser and finer interbeds (< 0.5 m thick) and rare tuffaceous debris flows (clasts < 2 cm in size). The thrust plane is characterized by small duplexes of basalt entrained along the contact. (c) Local log of part of the silicic volcanogenic sequence exposed along the main road. This begins with a volcanic conglomerate with mainly sub-rounded to sub-angular boulders of hard flinty rhyolite in a pale, chaotic debris-flow unit. The sequence grades upwards into relatively massive white tuff with scatted small lava clasts. Overlying thick debris flows include angular clasts of grey flinty rhyolite clasts (up to 2.5 m in size). Interbedded fine-grained tuff contains scattered rhyolite blocks (up to 0.8 m in size). (d) Local log of basalt and pelagic chalk sequence exposed in the road section, structurally above the silicic volcanogenic sequence (see (c)). The chalk is interbedded with pillow basalt, lava breccia and hyaloclastite mixed with chalk. Chalk interbeds are dated as Late Campanian–Maastrichtian (sample 09/28) and as Late Maastrichtian (sample 06/10a, b), while pelagic limestone interbedded with pillow basalt along the road section to the south is dated as Middle Eocene (sample 09/30). (e) Part of the sequence along the north side of the main road exposes weakly bedded silicic tuff, locally overlain by a vitreous rhyolite flow. A small irregular body interpreted as a high-level basaltic intrusion cuts the tuff. (f) Pyroxenite sill intruding tuffaceous sediments. The intrusion is truncated by a thrust, above which comes a contrasting succession of Upper Cretaceous pelagic chalk and basalt. (g) The lower silicic lava/tuff sequence and the overlying Upper Cretaceous pelagic chalk/basalt sequence are separated by a thrust. Both sequences are folded into a SE-facing anticline of Late Miocene–earliest Pliocene age.

Figure 9. Field relations of the Upper Cretaceous volcanic and sedimentary rocks exposed near Selvilitepe (Fourkovouno) to the east of Geçiköy (Panagra); Area 3 in Figure 1. (a) Outline geological map, modified from Baroz (Reference Baroz1979). A thrust separates silicic tuff and rhyolite below from a pillow basalt–pelagic chalk sequence above. Pillow lava and pillow breccia in the southwest of the area mapped appear to be stratigraphically inverted owing to the presence of a S-facing recumbent fold (see Fig. 8g). (b) Local profile showing the lower sequence of silicic tuffs and lenticular rhyolitic flows that are interbedded with silicic tuffs and cut by elongate sill-like basaltic intrusions. Upper Cretaceous basaltic pillow lavas and pelagic carbonates as exposed structurally above this. (c) Highest exposed part of the silicic volcanogenic rocks, overlain by silicic tuff and tuffaceous chalk, followed above a thrust plane by Upper Cretaceous pelagic chalk (pillow basalt is exposed further north). The uppermost silicic tuff beneath the thrust is brecciated, while overlying chalk just above the thrust is sheared. The thrust cuts obliquely across the tectonostratigraphy at a low angle (< 25°).

Figure 10. Field relations of volcanogenic rocks and pelagic carbonates exposed west of Kayalar (Orga) in the most westerly part of the western Kyrenia Range (location 1 in Fig. 1). (a) Geological sketch map based on Moore (Reference Moore1960), Baroz (Reference Baroz1979) and this study. Exposure is limited on a bush-covered hillside south of the road. Basalts are interbedded with Paleocene chalk in the north (near the road) while pelagic chalk interbedded with silicic tuff higher on the hillside (southwards) is dated as Late Cretaceous, confirming the existence of the mapped thrust. (b) Profile showing the upward passage from Upper Cretaceous pelagic chalk, to silicic tuff and then into coarser volcanogenic debris flows interbedded with Upper Cretaceous pelagic chalk.

4.b. Basic volcanic rocks elsewhere in the Kyrenia Range

Pelagic chalks were collected and dated from lava–sediment associations throughout the eastern part of the central Kyrenia Range, the eastern Range and the Karpas Peninsula (Fig. 1). Samples have also been collected from many of these outcrops for palaeomagnetic study, mainly to shed light on any tectonic rotations that could have affected the Kyrenia Range (Hodgson et al. Reference Hodgson, Morris, Anderson and Robertson2010). The basaltic extrusive rocks are most extensive in the eastern range, where they have been interpreted as intercalations within the Upper Cretaceous Melounda (Mallıdağ) Formation and the Palaeogene (Ayios Nikolaos (Yamaçköy) Formation) (Baroz, Reference Baroz1979; Robertson & Woodcock, Reference Robertson, Woodcock, Reading, Watterson and White1986; Hakyemez et al. Reference Hakyemez, Turhan, Sönmez and Sümengen2000; Fig. 2).

Pelagic carbonate within the interstices of pillow lavas exposed in a quarry ~ 1 km west of Değirmenlik (Kithrea) (Fig. 11a) yielded a Late Maastrichtian age (samples 06/28a–c; Table 1) and is, therefore, correlated with the Melounda (Mallıdağ) Formation. In addition, a sample of pelagic chalk interbedded with pillow lava was collected from a road section between Halevga (Halevka) and Değirmenlik (Kithrea) (sample 06/27a) and this also gave a Late Maastrichtian age (Table 1). Near Ergenekon (Agios Khariton), two samples of pelagic carbonate overlying a massive lava flow (Fig. 11b; samples 06/31a, b) provided Late Campanian–Maastrichtian and Late Maastrichtian ages, respectively (see Table 1). Near Tirmen (Trypimeni) two samples of pelagic chalk within stratigraphically inverted pillow basalts gave Late Maastrichtian ages (Fig. 11ci). One sample (06/3a; Fig. 6d2; Table 1) was collected from pelagic limestone mixed with volcanic detritus from just beneath a basaltic lava flow; another (06/4a) came from a lens of pelagic limestone between pillow lava. Several other samples were collected higher in the succession in this area, 1.5 km NNW of Tirmen (Trypimeni). These are associated with a thick lava flow (~ 60 m) that is underlain by red siliceous shale, pelagic carbonate and fine-grained calciturbidites. The pelagic carbonate was dated as Late Paleocene (Fig. 11cii; Table 2).

Figure 11. Field relations of dated chalks associated with basaltic lavas in the central and eastern Kyrenia Range, areas 7–13. See text for an explanation of each area. The locations of samples are listed in Tables A1 and A2.

Pelagic chalk interbedded with basaltic lava flows further east near Çınarlı (Platani) (Fig. 11di) yielded a Late Maastrichtian age (sample 06/8a; Table 1). Higher in the succession in this area (0.5 km further west; Fig. 11dii), pelagic chalk interbedded with massive lava flows (sample 06/9a) furnished a Late Paleocene age, while a sample higher in the sequence (06/9b) was dated as Middle Eocene (Fig. 6l, p; Table 2). Near Mallıdağ (Melounda) (Fig. 11e) one sample of grey pelagic chalk interbedded with massive lava (sample 06/1a) yielded a Late Campanian–Maastrichtian age, while another (sample 06/2a) gave a Late Maastrichtian age (Fig. 6b). Pelagic limestone interbedded with lava flows near Ağıllar (Mandres) village (Fig. 11f) was dated as Late Campanian–Maastrichtian (sample 06/29a) and Late Maastrichtian (sample 06/29b). Pelagic limestone interbedded with pillowed flows from a road section 1.75 km east of Ağıllar (Mandres) (sample 06/30) also gave a Late Maastrichtian age (see Table 1).

In addition, pelagic chalk was also collected from a large exposure (~ 7 km E–W × 2.5 km N–S) of thrust sheets dominated by pillow basalt near Balalan (Platanisso) in the Karpas Peninsula (Fig. 11g; see G. McCay, unpub. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Edinburgh, 2010). Pinkish interpillow carbonate is commonly present in several different thrust sheets. Pelagic carbonate also fills in numerous sub-vertical neptunian fissures that transect the lavas. Interpillow pelagic carbonate (~ 80 m NNW of Balalan mosque; Fig. 11gi) is dated as Late Maastrichtian (samples 06/17a–e; Table 1). Pelagic carbonate filling nearby neptunian fissures (samples 06/18a, b & GM09/23) was dated only generally as Miocene–Holocene based on planktonic foraminifera including Orbulina sp. and Globigerinoides sp. (Fig. 6v, w, y; Fig. 11gii). In another outcrop ~ 400 m SSW of Balalan (Fig. 11giii) three samples were collected from a small lens of pelagic carbonate within pillow lava (5 m × 1 m thick), mixed with pillow lava debris. These three samples (06/21a–c) were dated as Late Maastrichtian (Fig. 6a, h; Table 1). Two samples of interstitial pelagic chalk (e.g. sample 06/26a) from a separate thrust sheet of pillow lava further north, along the northern edge of the Balalan outcrop (Fig. 11giv), yielded a general Late Cretaceous age (see Table 1).

In summary, the new age data (Fig. 12) indicate that the basaltic lavas within the Melounda (Mallıdağ) Formation are mainly Late Maastrichtian in age. In contrast, the basalts associated with the overlying Ayios Nikolaos (Yamaçköy) Formation range from Late Paleocene to Middle Eocene.

Figure 12. Summary of the ranges of some of the age-diagnostic planktonic foraminifera identified from thin-sections during this work, associated with various volcanogenic lithologies throughout the Kyrenia Range. The main source references are indicated. The species age ranges suggest that the volcanism mainly occurred during Late Maastrichtian and Late Paleocene time. A Mid-Eocene age was recognized at only one locality. The Neogene–Recent age refers to planktonic foraminifera that were reworked into neptunian fissures and do not indicate a time of volcanism.

6.a. Comparable Late Cretaceous magmatism

The volcanogenic Kannaviou Formation in western Cyprus is comparable with the silicic volcanics exposed in the Kyrenia Range. This formation depositionally overlies the Upper Cretaceous pillow basalts of the Troodos ophiolite, reaching a thickness of ~ 750 m thick (Robertson, Reference Robertson1977) in western Cyprus. The Kannaviou Formation is dominated by alternating bentonitic clays, radiolarian mudstones and volcaniclastic sandstones. The sandstones contain abundant grains of basaltic andesite and silicic volcanic glass of inferred volcanic arc origin, based on electron microprobe data (Robertson, Reference Robertson, Moores, Panayiotou and Xenophontos1990). These sediments and their ophiolitic basement restore to a relatively more northerly position prior to their well-documented 90° anticlockwise rotation during Late Campanian–Early Eocene time (Clube, Creer & Robertson, Reference Clube, Creer and Robertson1985; Clube & Robertson, Reference Clube and Robertson1986; see Morris, Reference Morris, Morris and Tarling1996). The silicic volcanic rocks in the Kyrenia Range and the volcanogenic sediments in western Cyprus could both represent remnants of continental margin arc magmatism, mainly not exposed owing to the effects of later-stage subduction or collision along the northern, active margin of the Southern Neotethys. The Kannaviou Formation is dated as Campanian to earliest Maastrichtian(?) using radiolarians and planktonic foraminifera (Urquhart & Banner, Reference Urquhart and Banner1994; see also Lord et al. Reference Lord, Panayides, Urquhart, Xenophontos, Panayides, Xenophontos and Malpas2000). Assuming a correlation with the Kyrenia Range, this would be consistent with a Campanian age of the silicic volcanics, as suggested by limited Ar–Ar dating (K. Huang, unpub. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. Hong Kong, 2008).

There is also evidence of Late Cretaceous arc-type magmatism cutting the Tauride carbonate platform (Keban-Malatya unit) in SE Turkey (Perinçek & Kozlu, Reference Perinçek, Kozlu, Tekeli and Göncüoğlu1984; Yazgan & Chessex, Reference Yazgan and Chessex1991; Robertson et al. Reference Robertson, Ustaömer, Parlak, Unlügenç, Taslı and İnan2006, Reference Robertson, Parlak, Rızaoğlu, Unlügenç, İnan, Taslı, Ustaömer, Ries, Butler and Graham2007; Parlak, Reference Parlak2006; Karaoğlan et al. Reference Karaoğlan, Parlak, Hejl, Neubauer, Klötzlı, Koller, Kop, Bozdağ, Çan and Karaoğlan2010). Improved radiometric dating indicates a limited age span of ~ 84–81 Ma (Early Campanian) (Rızaoğlu et al. Reference Rızaoğlu, Parlak, Höck, Koller, Hames and Billor2009). The magmatism can be explained by northward subduction of the Southern Neotethys beneath a Tauride microcontinent to form an Andean-type magmatic arc.

Within the Misis-Andırın Range, northeast of the Kyrenia Range (Fig. 1), Mesozoic carbonate platform rocks and mélange are structurally underlain by a broken formation that locally retains an intact succession (up to ~ 300 m thick) of massive basalt, pillow basalt, pillow breccia and matrix-supported volcaniclastic debris flows. The volcaniclastic sediments include vitric, lithic and crystal tuffs that are inferred to have been derived from a calc-alkaline volcanic arc (Floyd et al. Reference Floyd, Kelling, Gökçen and Gökçen1992). Associated turbidites contain mixtures of terrigenous and magmatic detritus suggesting a continental margin rather than oceanic setting. The pillow basalts exhibit a mildly enriched subduction-related pattern with La/Nb ratios suggestive of a back-arc setting (Floyd et al. Reference Floyd, Kelling, Gökçen and Gökçen1991). In different areas the volcanogenic rocks are interbedded with radiolarian sediments and pelagic carbonates of Campanian–Maastrichtian age (Robertson et al. Reference Robertson, Unlügenç, İnan and Taslı2004), or Campanian age (Kozlu, Reference Kozlu1987) based on dating using planktonic foraminifera. Previous reports (Floyd et al. Reference Floyd, Kelling, Gökçen and Gökçen1991, Reference Floyd, Kelling, Gökçen and Gökçen1992) of a Miocene age for the volcanic rocks in the Misis-Andırın Range have not been substantiated. This was based on the apparent presence of intercalations of Miocene sediments. However, these Miocene sediments were later shown to be tectonically interleaved with the volcanics, related to Late Miocene thrusting (Robertson et al. Reference Robertson, Unlügenç, İnan and Taslı2004).

The evidence of a Campanian–Maastrichtian age of the Misis-Andırın Range volcanic rocks (Robertson et al. Reference Robertson, Unlügenç, İnan and Taslı2004) prompts a comparison with the Kyrenia Range basaltic rocks. The field relations of the Upper Maastrichtian basalts in the Karpas Peninsula are comparable with exposures in the Misis-Andırın Range. Instead of simply basalt–pelagic carbonate intercalations as seen throughout the western, central and eastern range, exposures in the Karpas Peninsula include intercalations of red shale, radiolarites and calciturbidites (G. McCay, unpub. Ph.D. thesis, Univ., Edinburgh, 2010).

However, the Maastrichtian basalts in the Karpas Peninsula lack a subduction influence (Robertson & Woodcock, Reference Robertson, Woodcock, Reading, Watterson and White1986; Huang, Malpas & Xenophontos, Reference Huang, Malpas, Xenophontos, Moumani, Shawabkeh, Al-Malabeh and Abdelghafoor2007; see also K. Huang, unpub. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. Hong Kong, 2008) in contrast to the basalts of the Misis-Andırın Range (Floyd et al. Reference Floyd, Kelling, Gökçen and Gökçen1991, Reference Floyd, Kelling, Gökçen and Gökçen1992).

One possibility is that the basaltic volcanism along the northern active margin was compositionally variable, related to melting of inhomogeneous mantle lithosphere that was variably affected by subduction and or extension (transtension?) during Late Cretaceous (Campanian–Maastrichtian) time.

6.b. Comparable Palaeogene magmatism

There is also evidence of Early–Mid-Eocene magmatism stretching from the Misis-Andırın Range eastwards into Iran. Eocene andesitic volcanic rocks with a subduction-related signature are locally exposed near the front of the over-riding Tauride thrust sheets, for example along the southern front of the Engizek Mountains (Yılmaz, Reference Yılmaz1993; Robertson et al. Reference Robertson, Ustaömer, Parlak, Unlügenç, Taslı and İnan2006). These volcanic rocks are chemically dissimilar to the Upper Paleocene–Middle Eocene variably ‘enriched’ basalts of the Kyrenia Range. On the other hand, further east along the Tauride thrust front, Eocene basalts erupted in a relatively deep-marine setting above metamorphic rocks in the Bitlis Massif (Karadere Volcanics; Aktaş & Robertson, Reference Aktaş, Robertson and Robertson1984, Reference Aktaş, Robertson, Moores, Panayiotou and Xenophontos1990). Chemically, these are high-alumina basalts without evidence of a subduction influence and are chemically similar to some of the Upper Paleocene–Middle Eocene Kyrenia Range basalts. Eocene basaltic volcanics also erupted widely further north in eastern Turkey within a deep-marine setting, known as the Maden basin, as exposed in the Engizek-Pütürge and Bitlis massifs. The field relations of these basalts are indicative of an extensional setting, with a subduction chemical influence (Yılmaz, Reference Yılmaz1993; Robertson et al. Reference Robertson, Ustaömer, Parlak, Unlügenç, Taslı and İnan2006, Reference Robertson, Parlak, Rızaoğlu, Unlügenç, İnan, Taslı, Ustaömer, Ries, Butler and Graham2007), similar to some of the Kyrenia Range Upper Paleocene–Middle Eocene basalts. There is also some evidence of Eocene granitic magmatism cutting the Malatya platform that is likely to be subduction-related based on recent radiometric age dating and chemical analysis (Parlak, Reference Parlak2006; Karaoğlan et al. Reference Karaoğlan, Parlak, Hejl, Neubauer, Klötzlı, Koller, Kop, Bozdağ, Çan and Karaoğlan2010). The Middle Eocene magmatic rocks in southeastern Turkey can be interpreted as the result of northward subduction of a remnant Southern Neotethys resulting in small volumes of calc-alkaline magmatism, while within-plate volcanics with a subduction influence erupted in a back-arc setting further north (Robertson et al. Reference Robertson, Ustaömer, Parlak, Unlügenç, Taslı and İnan2006, Reference Robertson, Parlak, Rızaoğlu, Unlügenç, İnan, Taslı, Ustaömer, Ries, Butler and Graham2007). Subduction was possibly oblique resulting in segmentation of the active margin into some parts undergoing subduction and calc-alkaline magmatism and others undergoing extension (or transtension) and related basaltic eruption (Aktaş & Robertson, Reference Robertson, Moores, Panayiotou and Xenophontos1990).

In general, the evidence from SE Turkey is indicative of Late Cretaceous northward subduction to form an Andean-type continental margin arc, apparently followed by magmatic quiescence until Middle Eocene time. This could relate to a period of arrested convergence of the Eurasian and African plates (Savostin et al. Reference Savostin, Sibuet, Zonenshain, Le Pichon and Rolet1986). After subduction of the remaining oceanic crust during Eocene time, closure culminated in southward thrusting of the Taurides over the Arabian continental margin during Early Miocene time (Perinçek & Özkaya, Reference Perinçek and Özkaya1981; Yazgan & Chessex, 1993; Yılmaz, Reference Yılmaz1993; Robertson et al. Reference Robertson, Ustaömer, Parlak, Unlügenç, Taslı and İnan2006).