The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of an unfamiliar nest and environmental enrichment, ie provision of an additional nest, on farmed blue fox (Alopex lagopus) vixens’ reproductive performance. Two experimental groups were evaluated in the study: i) a single nest (SN) group where vixens had an unfamiliar top nest only, and ii) a group with two nests (TN), an unfamiliar top nest and a familiar floor nest. Since reproductive performance is typically lower in young blue fox vixens, half of the experimental animals consisted of primiparous vixens, to examine whether an unfamiliar and an additional nest affected primiparous and multiparous vixens’ reproduction differently. No significant differences were found in reproductive performance between the experimental groups or between the primiparous and the multiparous vixens with the number of weaned cubs per inseminated vixen 4.8 (± 4.0) and 4.9 (± 4.5) for the primiparous and 5.6 (± 4.9) and 5.5 (± 4.6) for the multiparous vixens in SN and TN groups, respectively. In the multiparous vixens, the cub losses were higher in SN than in TN groups. The higher cub loss in the SN group may have been due to the lack of a familiar nest. In the TN group, where vixens had the opportunity to choose between two nest types, the majority (86%) of the primiparous vixens whelped in the floor nest, whereas the majority (73%) of the multiparous vixens favoured the unfamiliar top nest for whelping. Both nests were used by 43% of all TN vixens, a finding that indicates that an additional nest may have an enrichment value for blue fox vixens. The potential welfare consequences of providing blue fox vixens with an additional nest box should be investigated in future studies.

The stability and uniformity of the following gas mixtures: 90% argon; 85% argon and 15% carbon dioxide (CO2); 70% argon and 30% CO2; 98% nitrogen (N2); 92% N2 and 8% CO2; 90% N2 and 10% CO2; 85% N2 and 15% CO2; 80% N2 and 20% CO2; 70% N2 and 30% CO2; and 90% CO2 by volume in atmospheric air were assessed in a commercial dip-lift stunning system when the cradle was either stationary or in motion. The gas mixtures of 90% argon, 85% argon and 15% CO2, 70% argon and 30% CO2, 85% N2 and 15% CO2, 80% N2 and 20% CO2, 70% N2 and 30% CO2 and 90% CO2 by volume in atmospheric air could be sustained in a commercial dip-lift stunning system. The stability of the gas mixtures 92% N2 and 8% CO2, and 90% N2 and 10% CO2 by volume in atmospheric air were lower than in the previous cases. On the other hand, an N2 concentration higher than 94% by volume in atmospheric air could not be sustained in the stunning system. In addition, gas mixtures of argon and CO2 showed a higher stability than gas mixtures of N2 and CO2. The uniformity at different levels inside the pit (defined as the capacity of the gas to maintain its concentration constant at different levels inside the pit) was higher in 90% argon, or argon and CO2 mixtures and N2 and CO2 mixtures than in 90% CO2. This fact ensures that for the whole time the animals are inside the pit, the same conditions are applied, which is not the case for 90% CO2.

Each year, worldwide, large numbers of wild animals are taken to rehabilitation centres for treatment, care and release. Although analysis of intake records may provide valuable insight into the threats and impacts to wildlife, there are few such published reports. Four years of intake records from a large urban rehabilitation centre in South Africa were examined for trends. Animal intake rate was high (2,701 [± 94] per annum). Most of the intake (90%) was birds, with few mammals (8%) and reptiles (2%), and most of these were of locally common species (eg doves, pigeons). This reflects the findings of other studies, namely that species living in close association with humans are the most frequently admitted to rehabilitation centres. In total, most of the animals admitted (43%) were juveniles, which were assumed to be abandoned or orphaned. The implications of then rehabilitating these juveniles, which were largely uninjured, are three-fold: should humans be interfering with nature if the cause was not human-related, can each juvenile (especially in these large numbers) be adequately prepared to survive and thrive when released into the wild, and is there space in the environment for them, without causing harm to others already in the environment. This study suggests that the large numbers of animals currently being admitted to the centre may be reduced, possibly through increased public education; in particular to leave uninjured juveniles in the wild. Furthermore, improvements in the centre's recording system may allow for use in funding requests and various research opportunities.

This study investigates the genetic basis of lamb vigour (defined as neonatal lamb activity and sucking ability) and lambing difficulty as potential traits to be included in selection programmes to improve ewe and lamb welfare. Scores for lamb birth difficulty, vigour and sucking ability were collected shortly after birth on 1,520 lambs born in 2006 in 19 different flocks that were members of the UK Suffolk Sire Referencing Scheme. Scores evaluated each trait on a scale of 1 to 4; 1 being no assistance given either during birth or to suck, or excellent vigour, through to 4 where a large degree of assistance was required, or poor vigour. Genetic parameters (heritabilities, genetic correlations) were estimated by fitting an individual animal model using ASREML. Variance components obtained from univariate and bivariate analyses were averaged to provide genetic parameter estimates. Heritabilities for birth difficulty and vigour were moderate but heritability for sucking ability was not significant. The genetic correlation between vigour and sucking ability was positive and high, that between vigour and birth difficulty moderately negative, and that between birth difficulty and sucking ability not significant. Birth difficulty and vigour could be included in Suffolk breeding programmes to help reduce health and welfare problems associated with these traits in Suffolk sheep, and in flocks producing crossbred lambs sired by Suffolk rams. Further work is required to evaluate correlations between these traits and performance traits and to comprehensively validate the scoring system once more data become available.

The objective of this study was to assess the aversion to exposure of 90% argon, 70% N2/30% CO2 and 85% N2/15% CO2 by volume in atmospheric air in 24 halothane-free slaughter-weight pigs using aversion learning techniques and behavioural studies in an experimental slaughterhouse. Pigs were subjected to the treatments individually during 2 separate trials of 12 animals each. The time of exposure to the gases was 46 and 32 s, respectively. When the pit contained any of the 3 gas mixtures, the time taken to cross the raceway and enter the cradle (TCREC) increased compared with the training sessions (atmospheric air). The incidence of pigs showing retreat and escape attempts and gasps and the number of times that this behaviour was performed was lower in 90% argon than in the gas mixtures with N2 and CO2. On the other hand, the time to loss of posture was lower with 70% N2/30% CO2 than with argon. The second exposure to all gas mixtures was more aversive than the first and the loss of posture also occurred earlier in the second exposure. In conclusion, pigs showed more aversion to gas mixtures with N2 and either 15% or 30% CO2 by volume than 90% argon by volume.

In humans, empathy has emotional and cognitive components, both of which are linked to caring and nurturant behaviour. Variations in each of these facets of empathy were likely to have been accessible to natural selection during the evolution of Homo, although the likely details of their respective adaptive values has so far only been considered in the context of intraspecific (human-human) behaviour. We propose that evolutionary psychology may provide a useful additional framework for examining why humans feel empathy for certain animals but not others. Phobias towards noxious animals, such as snakes and spiders, have been explained in terms of gene-culture co-evolution, but the possibility of an analogous ‘biophilia’ directed towards other animals has received less attention. The redirection of primarily intraspecific nurturant behaviour towards the young of non-human species may be a general human trait since it is practiced in a wide variety of cultures, including hunter-gatherers, and may arise from the merging of natural history and social intelligences that the archaeologist Steven Mithen suggests evolved ~100,000 years before present (YBP). The visual stimuli that evoke such nurturant behaviour, Lorenz's ‘Kindschenschema’, or ‘cuteness’, have been compared with the super-stimuli whereby parasitic cuckoos induce care-giving from their hosts, but recent evidence suggests that human females of childbearing age are especially sensitised to respond most strongly to characteristics of human infants, and may correspondingly become less attracted towards ‘cute’ animals. It is also possible that during human prehistory, the ability to care for young animals was selected for, in adolescent females, as an honest indicator of future quality as a mother. An ability to empathise with animals may also have given certain individuals and/or groups of kin an evolutionary advantage in hunting, and subsequently herding and domesticating, animals. Concern for animal welfare may therefore stem from an evolved human trait, even though its degree and extent of expression are undoubtedly strongly influenced by culture.

There has been insufficient research into CO2 stunning with regard to its effect on pigs being slaughtered. This lack of knowledge may be at least partly responsible for the partial rejection of CO2-stunning methods. During routine slaughter work, 598 pigs (average carcase weight: 94 kg) were evaluated. The stunning procedure was carried out in industrial stunning chambers with 90% CO2 by volume and an exposure time of either 120 or 90 s. The corneal reflex response was evaluated immediately prior to bleeding in order to determine the depth of narcosis. Blood was taken at slaughter (slaughter blood) to determine the partial pressure of breathing gases and the acid-base status. We found that CO2 stunning mainly produced hypoxaemia, but also normoand hyperoxaemia, in arteriovenous slaughter blood. No further positive reflex responses occurred at a pO2 threshold of ≤ 1.6 kPa. PCO2 increased to values of 40 kPa and above. This extreme hypercapnia resulted in a decrease of the slaughter blood pH with values of less than 7.00 (ie, strong respiratory acidosis). Starting with threshold values from pCO2 > 23 kPa and pH < 6.85, stunned pigs revealed only a few or no positive reflex responses, respectively. The non-respiratory Stewart-variable serum [SID3] was elevated to alkaline values of 65 mmol L−1 and above, in comparison to the normal values of 45 (± 2) mmol L−1. We conclude that the use of cut-off points such as the pH and/or pO2 in routine sampling of slaughter animals (eg by application of ion-sensitive electrodes) would establish the depth of narcosis in pigs destined for slaughter. The efficiency of monitoring could thereby be improved during slaughter, in line with the demands of animal welfare.

The aim of this paper is to discuss the potential consequences of modern dairy cattle breeding for the welfare of dairy cows. The paper focuses on so-called genomic selection, which deploys thousands of genetic markers to estimate breeding values. The discussion should help to structure the thoughts of breeders and other stakeholders on how to best make use of genomic breeding in the future. Intensive breeding has played a major role in securing dramatic increases in milk yield since the Second World War. Until recently, the main focus in dairy cattle breeding was on production traits, but during the past couple of decades more emphasis has been placed on a few rough, but useful, measures of traits relevant to cow welfare, including calving ease score and ‘clinical disease or not’; the aim being to counteract the unfavourable genetic association with production traits. However, unfavourable genetic trends for metabolic, reproductive, claw and leg diseases indicate that these attempts have been insufficient. Today, novel genome-wide sequencing techniques are revolutionising dairy cattle breeding; these enable genetic changes to occur at least twice as rapidly as previously. While these new genomic tools are especially useful for traits relating to animal welfare that are difficult to improve using traditional breeding tools, they may also facilitate breeding schemes with reduced generation intervals carrying a higher risk of unwanted side-effects on animal welfare. In this paper, a number of potential risks are discussed, including detrimental genetic trends for non-measured welfare traits, the increased chance of spreading unfavourable mutations, reduced sharing of information arising from concerns over patents, and an increased monopoly within dairy cattle breeding that may make it less accountable to the concern of private farmers for the welfare of their animals. It is argued that there is a need to mobilise a wide range of stakeholders to monitor developments and maintain pressure on breeding companies so that they are aware of the need to take precautionary measures to avoid negative effects on animal welfare and to invest in breeding for increased animal welfare. Researchers are encouraged to further investigate the long-term effects of various breeding schemes that rely on genomic breeding values.

The welfare of production animals provokes wide social discussion among the public, yet, despite this, farmers’ voices and their representations of animal welfare are rarely heard, even though farmers are the ones actually able to improve animal welfare. Farmers’ perceptions of what constitutes animal welfare and how it may be improved can differ from those of consumers and other stakeholders, and therefore it is crucial to understand what farmers mean when they talk about improving animal welfare. To chart farmers’ perceptions, we conducted qualitative interviews and a questionnaire study using the theory of planned behaviour as a conceptual framework. We found that the farmers perceived the improvement of animal welfare as four specific, practical attitude objects (providing animals with a favourable environment; taking care of animal health; treating the animals humanely; and taking care of the farmer's own well-being) and two different but often overlapping general attitudinal dimensions (the instrumental and intrinsic evaluations of animal welfare). The farmers’ intentions to improve animal welfare were best explained by their attitudes towards the specific welfare-improving actions. The concept of the improvement of animal welfare examined in this study outlines measures to improve animal welfare from the farmers’ point of view and discusses their influence. Our study demonstrates that by adapting a valid conceptual framework and applying relevant qualitative and quantitative methods that support each other, we are able to elucidate the underlying meanings and values in farmers’ views on improving animal welfare.

As animal industry and animal advocacy groups debate how farm animals should be treated, little research has focused on the attitudes of consumers in the United States. This study utilises results of a representative telephone survey to measure consumer attitudes towards farm animal welfare, and investigates how these attitudes vary across individuals. The survey finds that consumers desire high standards of animal care, even if it raises food prices and involves government regulation. Support is particularly strong from females, Democrats, and residents of the Northeastern United States. To provide high standards of animal care, consumers as a whole perceive allowing animals to exhibit natural behaviours and exercise outdoors to be more important than protection from other animals, shelter, socialisation, and comfortable bedding. Consumers vary in their perceptions though, and are divided into three classes: Naturalists, Price Seekers, and Basic Welfarists. Naturalists place great importance on allowing animals to exhibit natural behaviours and exercise outdoors, and comprise 46% of the sample. Price Seekers, comprising 14% of the sample, are primarily concerned with low prices. Basic Welfarists make up 40% of the respondents, and value animal welfare but perceive it can be achieved by simply providing food, water, and treatment for injury and disease. This last group perceives amenities, such as access to outdoors and ability to exhibit natural behaviours, unimportant for the well-being of farm animals.

This study assessed the effect of increasing fibre levels in the concentrate ration on the welfare of sows housed in a large dynamic group. One hundred and twelve Large White * Landrace sows were allocated to one of two treatments over six replicates. Treatments were as follows: (i) High Fibre diet (~15% CF [Crude Fibre]), and (ii) Control diet (~5% CF). Treatments were applied to two separate dynamic groups each containing 33 (±3) sows in a cross-over design, after three replicates the treatments were switched between the groups. Approximately nine sows were replaced in each of these groups at 3-week intervals (each replacement constituting a replicate of the study). Sows on the high fibre diet spent a greater percentage of time lying (High Fibre: 43.8, Control: 28.0, SEM 3.25%), while sows on the control diet spent more time sham chewing (High Fibre: 7.2, Control: 28.8, SEM 1.55%). Sows newly introduced to the group on the high fibre treatment spent proportionally more time in the kennel areas compared to newly introduced sows in the control treatment (High Fibre: 0.893, Control: 0.788, SEM 5.10). In general, aggression occurred at a very low frequency and overall levels did not differ between treatments (High Fibre: 0.005, Control: 0.003, SEM 0.0007 [occurrences per min]). However, sows in the control treatment performed head thrusting (High Fibre: 0.02, Control: 0.00, SEM 0.001 [occurrences per min]), and biting behaviour (High Fibre: 0.02, Control: 0.01, SEM 0.002 [occurrences per min]) more frequently than sows on the high fibre diet. There was no effect of treatment on physiological parameters such as plasma cortisol (High Fibre: 1.34, Control: 1.44, SEM 0.114 ng ml−1) or haptoglobin levels (High Fibre: 0.73, Control: 0.64, SEM 0.080 mg ml−1). In summary, provision of a high fibre diet had a positive effect on the welfare of group-housed dry sows. Sows on the high fibre treatment spent more time resting in the kennel areas, less time performing stereotypic behaviours and showed a reduction in some aggressive behaviours relative to sows fed the control diet.

The routine mixing of pigs causes aggression that cannot be greatly reduced by low-cost environmental changes. The variability and heritability of aggressiveness are discussed and both appear adequate to make selection against aggressiveness worthwhile in grower-stage pigs. Selection would require rapid phenotyping of many animals for which a validated indicator genetically correlated to aggressive behaviour is required. Three potential indicators are discussed (attack latency, number of skin lesions and relationship to non-social behavioural traits). Attack latency correlates with post-mixing aggressiveness under research conditions but attacks are delayed under commercial conditions reducing the practicability of the trait for selection. Correlations between aggressiveness and responses to non-social challenges, such as the back-test, are not always consistent. Lastly, the counting of skin lesions is rapid, and the number of lesions has a moderate heritability and is genetically correlated with involvement in aggressive behaviour. The wider effects of selection against post-mixing aggressiveness are discussed. Examining the behavioural strategies of unaggressive pigs, especially their response to defeat, would reveal how selection may alter aggressive tactics. Selection against lesions from mixing is also expected to reduce their number in more stable social conditions, but the implications for aggression between sows and that of sows towards their piglets and humans needs to be investigated. Aggressiveness is genetically correlated with response to handling involving components of social isolation, human presence and novelty. Identifying how unaggressive pigs respond to other challenging situations differing in these components may be worthwhile. Selection against aggression using skin lesions appears to be achievable although the full value of this would benefit from estimations of the genetic correlations with the traits outlined above.