Increased on-farm cow mortality (ie unassisted death and euthanasia) has been demonstrated in Swedish dairy herds during the last decade. Identifying risk factors associated with type of death is needed for future work in reducing cow mortality rates. The objectives of this case-control study were to quantify the relative proportion of unassisted dead cows among cows that die on-farm, and to identify risk factors associated with unassisted death (as opposed to euthanasia). In Sweden, cadavers and animal waste products are being processed into biofuel at destruction plants. Two destruction plants were visited three times in 2011-2012. All dairy cows (n = 556) entering the plants were examined. Farmers that had sent the cows were contacted by telephone to verify type of death. Of the 433 dairy cows included in the analysis, 30% had died unassisted. A stillbirth rate above or equal to the median in the study material (7%) increased the risk for unassisted death. The proportion of unassisted dead cows was lower than that found in other countries. The results indicate that it might be possible to study euthanasia and unassisted death as one group in Swedish dairy cows, because only one factor differentiating between the two types of death was identified. However, unidentified risk factors may still differ and, possibly more importantly, welfare implications may also differ between the two types of death which implies the need to separate them in future studies.

This study investigated the influence of being reared with or without access to peat as well as the effects of losing or gaining substrate access on the dustbathing behaviour of young, domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus). There were four treatments, based on the period of time chicks had access to peat during rearing: (i) always (LL), (ii) never (NN), (iii) from 0 to 6 weeks of age (LN) and (iv) from 6 weeks of age onwards (NL). Observations on the number and length of dustbaths performed were made for six days with birds aged six weeks and 50% of the birds either lost or gained access to litter. The birds then remained in the same treatment conditions until 16 weeks of age, at which point the same behavioural observations were repeated. NL birds (which had just gained access to peat) were found to be quicker than LN birds (which had just lost access to peat) to perform a dustbath during the first observation period. A significant difference was seen in the variation of the duration of the dustbathing bouts; both LL and NL birds varied less in the lengths of their bouts than NN and LN birds over both observation periods. Hence, early rearing environment had less effect on birds’ dustbathing behaviour than current access or lack of access to litter. The irregular dustbathing pattern exhibited by birds that dustbathe without litter could be a sign of frustration; an indication that dustbathing without litter — unlike dustbathing in litter — does not provide the required feedback.

It is widely recognised that single housing is detrimental to the welfare of social species. However, some experimental procedures dictate that laboratory animals are housed individually. There is evidence to suggest that, by mimicking social contact, mirrors are beneficial to the welfare of singly housed horses and heifers. However, experiments with singly caged laboratory mice have found mirrors to be mildly aversive. The present study investigated the behavioural response of singly housed male and female rabbits to a mirror in their cage. After a period of pre-trial behavioural observations, rabbits were provided with an acrylic mirror, either at the front or the back of their cage, for a period of seven days. This was followed by a post-trial period, at the beginning of which all mirrors were removed. Both sexes showed some changes in behaviour and in the use of space within the cage. The addition of a mirror significantly reduced grooming in females, which was previously considered to be at high levels. Both males and females showed an increase in investigatory behaviour, although the patterns of change differed between the sexes. Differences between males and females are attributed to differences in socio-sexual strategies between the sexes. It is concluded that, when single housing is unavoidable, mirrors might be appropriate to partially compensate for social contact in female laboratory rabbits. Further research using a wide range of welfare indicators is needed to establish whether the provision of a mirror could be used as a successful method of improving laboratory rabbit welfare.

In the final year of a three-year study of lameness in dairy cattle, 40 herds were allocated to either an intervention (22) or control (18) group. Farms in the intervention group were visited by a veterinarian who made up to 16 recommendations to reduce the incidence of lameness based on potential risks for lameness observed at that visit. Farms in the control group were visited and the same observations were made, but no changes recommended. All farms were visited on three further occasions to score the locomotion of all cows and collect information on changes made to the farm. Before intervention, the mean herd size, lactation average milk yield per cow and prevalence of severely lame cows were 122, 8,157 I and 9.85% for the control group and 109, 7,807 I and 9.14% for the intervention group. After the intervention there were no significant differences between the treatments in terms of the change in prevalence of severely lame cows or the change in rate of sole ulcer, white line disease or digital dermatitis. The overall uptake of recommendations was 41.3%. There were no significant correlations between the percentage of risks addressed and the rate of sole ulcer or prevalence of severely lame cows and only a non-significant trend for white line disease. Improvements to cubicle dimensions were associated with a reduction in the rate of sole ulcer, and changing nutrition and adding biotin to the ration were associated with a reduction in white line disease. Conversely, increasing the amount of sawdust to cubicle floors was associated with increased rate of sole ulcer and white line disease and improving cubicle dimensions was associated with increased rate of white line disease.

Many studies on stress and pain rely, solely or mainly, on plasma Cortisol assessment. Confounding factors, such as handling, may cause a release of Cortisol making the interpretation of the results difficult. We looked at the influence of duration of restraint on the plasma cortisol levels of one-to-two month old calves. Forty-three calves were divided into four groups according to the interval between restraint and blood sampling: i) Group 0, immediate blood-sampling; ii) Group 0.5M, half a minute restraint; iii) Group IM, one minute restraint and iv) Group 2M, two minutes restraint. The only increase in plasma cortisol, compared with all the other groups, was seen with blood sampling after two minutes of restraint. This study provides evidence to suggest that cortisol released as a result of handling stress is not evident if blood sampling is carried out within one minute of restraining calves.

Traditionally, assessment of animal welfare generally focused on physiological signs of health with less consideration of psychological well-being. More recently, the Five Domains model highlighted the concept of all aspects of an animal's life influencing their affective state. In equestrianism, however, there is a lack of awareness of the Five Domains model and, specifically, how different factors may affect the mental well-being of horses (Equus caballus). This divide between scientific research and lay horse owners could compromise equine welfare by failing to recognise horses as sentient beings with species-specific needs. The present study therefore aimed to explore how evidence-based information can be effectively communicated to equestrians (n = 259) through an online survey and whether increased knowledge of equine welfare needs has any impact on horse caregivers’ assessment of their own horses’ quality of life. Results showed that a simple educational infographic based on the Five Domains model had a significant impact on equestrians’ assessment of equine welfare, although longitudinal, empirical studies are needed. Scores on a Likert scale for health, behaviour/human interactions and overall welfare were significantly lower following the intervention but scores for emotional well-being were significantly higher. This may suggest that, whilst the infographic increased participant awareness of the importance of emotional state and the factors affecting welfare, there were difficulties or inconsistencies in objectively assessing these emotions. This highlights the need for equine welfare science to be communicated more proactively to horse owners in an accessible, engaging format.

This paper argues that beliefs about human nature are central for animal ethics as beliefs about animal nature ground human treatment of animals. It shows that what constitutes animal nature is a contested question, and that animals have long been considered inferior to humans in Western thought. In Judaeo-Christian ethics, God gave humans dominion over animals. This exacerbated the long-established prejudice in Western culture in favour of rationality as the defining characteristic of human beings. Rene Descartes was influential in arguing that animals were but machines that moved and made sounds but had no feelings. In such a context it was easy to portray animals as quasi-clockwork animated robots — ‘furry clocks’. Jeremy Bentham first advocated the direct inclusion of animals in our ethical thinking, introducing the concept of sentience, or the capacity to feel pleasure and pain, as the central criterion. Peter Singer's work is in this tradition. He also popularised the notion of speciesism — a bias in favour of one's own species. Now, Martha Nussbaum has introduced a new approach, the capabilities approach, a Quality of Life approach which lists ten capabilities, nine of which apply to animals as part of their nature. It applies to the whole range of animals (and throughout this paper the term ‘animals’ refers to sentient animals unless otherwise specified) — companion animals, farm production animals, animals in zoos, rodeos, museums and laboratories. Her work is the main focus of this paper. It is argued, therefore, that the capabilities approach contributes to understanding the relation of notions of animal nature to animal welfare, and what a good life for animals entails.

This study assessed the effect of increasing fibre levels in the concentrate ration on the welfare of sows housed in a large dynamic group. One hundred and twelve Large White * Landrace sows were allocated to one of two treatments over six replicates. Treatments were as follows: (i) High Fibre diet (~15% CF [Crude Fibre]), and (ii) Control diet (~5% CF). Treatments were applied to two separate dynamic groups each containing 33 (±3) sows in a cross-over design, after three replicates the treatments were switched between the groups. Approximately nine sows were replaced in each of these groups at 3-week intervals (each replacement constituting a replicate of the study). Sows on the high fibre diet spent a greater percentage of time lying (High Fibre: 43.8, Control: 28.0, SEM 3.25%), while sows on the control diet spent more time sham chewing (High Fibre: 7.2, Control: 28.8, SEM 1.55%). Sows newly introduced to the group on the high fibre treatment spent proportionally more time in the kennel areas compared to newly introduced sows in the control treatment (High Fibre: 0.893, Control: 0.788, SEM 5.10). In general, aggression occurred at a very low frequency and overall levels did not differ between treatments (High Fibre: 0.005, Control: 0.003, SEM 0.0007 [occurrences per min]). However, sows in the control treatment performed head thrusting (High Fibre: 0.02, Control: 0.00, SEM 0.001 [occurrences per min]), and biting behaviour (High Fibre: 0.02, Control: 0.01, SEM 0.002 [occurrences per min]) more frequently than sows on the high fibre diet. There was no effect of treatment on physiological parameters such as plasma cortisol (High Fibre: 1.34, Control: 1.44, SEM 0.114 ng ml−1) or haptoglobin levels (High Fibre: 0.73, Control: 0.64, SEM 0.080 mg ml−1). In summary, provision of a high fibre diet had a positive effect on the welfare of group-housed dry sows. Sows on the high fibre treatment spent more time resting in the kennel areas, less time performing stereotypic behaviours and showed a reduction in some aggressive behaviours relative to sows fed the control diet.

In recent years, a possible defect in vitamin A metabolism in recessive white canaries (Serinus canaria,) has been repeatedly discussed. It has widely been accepted that a reduced absorption of carotenoids from the small intestine results in an insufficient synthesis of vitamin A. Moreover, the uptake of vitamin A from the lower intestine has also been discussed.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the utilization of ß-carotene and vitamin A by recessive white canaries (in comparison to coloured ones) as well as to quantify the accretion of vitamin A in the liver and vitamin A levels in plasma and fat tissues of canaries fed different doses of ß-carotene (≍ 6000iu vitamin A kg−1 diet) vs vitamin A (6000 or 18 000iu kg−1 diet).

The results were as follows:

• i) coloured canaries supplied exclusively with ß-carotene maintained normal vitamin A levels in the liver. These data indicated that conversion rates of ß-carotene to vitamin A (as established for poultry) were appropriate;

• ii) recessive white canaries were totally unable to utilize ß-carotene (based on vitamin A levels in blood, liver and fat);

• iii) in comparison to coloured canaries, their efficiency in utilizing retinol was significantly lower. They needed three times the vitamin A intake of coloured canaries to achieve the same vitamin A levels in the liver;

• iv) plasma vitamin A levels in coloured canaries did not reflect the vitamin A supply, but this blood level could be used to determine vitamin A status in recessive white birds.

Recommendations of vitamin A supplements for recessive white canaries should be given based on these data.

During slaughter, cattle may be exposed to many potentially stress-inducing factors, of emotional and physical nature. A series of studies aimed to identify factors that may contribute to slaughter stress. During reactivity tests testing emotional stressors, Blond d’Aquitaine bulls were more reactive than Angus and Limousin bulls. However, no breed differences were found for stress indicators at slaughter. Indicators of post mortem (PM) muscle metabolism were correlated with stress reactions at slaughter, and with behavioural reactions and heart rates during the reactivity tests, including a sudden event and handling. Similarly, in Normand cull cows, stronger behavioural and physiological reactions during the slaughter procedure were associated with faster PM muscle metabolism. Reactions during the reactivity tests were also correlated with stress indicators at slaughter. A Principal Component Analysis indicated that the first and second axes were correlated with reactions to non-familiarity and to social isolation, respectively. Both axes were correlated with stress indicators at slaughter, suggesting that these two aspects contribute significantly to the emotional stress at slaughter. These experiments indicate that stress reactivity at slaughter may be predicted from behavioural and emotional stress reactions during reactivity tests. A third experiment found that compared with normally fed cows, 30-h food-deprived cows showed stronger startle and fear responses in response to a sudden event. Within a group subjected to a physical-effort treatment, compared to normally fed heifers, food-deprived heifers were more reactive to human exposure. This shows that the reactions to a given stressor may increase due to the presence of other stressors. Thus, in cattle, novelty, social disturbances and sudden events may contribute to slaughter stress and the simultaneous presence of several stressors during the slaughter period may exacerbate stress reactions.

This study was performed to identify whether non-focal transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) with an adapted coil for broilers has the potential for use as a non-invasive stunning method for broilers. Application of the TMS probe resulted in dominance of theta and delta waves and appearance of spikes in the electroencephalogram (EEG) after stimulation. Correlation dimension (CD) analyses of the EEG signals recorded prior to and following the application of TMS suggested that the birds might be unconscious for approximately 15 to 20 s assuming that a reduction in CD to 60% of the baseline value indicates unconsciousness. Other observations included loss of behavioural arousal or muscle tone (muscle flaccidity), and irregular heart rate after TMS. It can be suggested that TMS has the potential to be developed as a stunning method in the future. The technique, evaluated using small number of broilers in this study, requires further improvement and the use of a power supply optimised in future research. Transcranial magnetic stimulation of the brain has potential for application as a non-invasive stunning method for broilers, which could be acceptable to some religious groups opposed to the use of established or conventional stunning methods.

In order to be suitable, a contraceptive method should have little or no effects on social organization or behaviour. In callitrichids, changes in socio-sexual interactions between group members, due to hormonal changes induced by contraception, may have consequences for the reproductive inhibition of offspring in their natal group. This may lead to an increased rate of inbreeding. In this paper we report on the endocrinological and behavioural effects of contraception in golden-headed lion tamarins, using data obtained through a world survey and an observational study. Hormonal analysis of urinary oestrone conjugate levels in melengestrol acetate (MGA)-implanted females confirmed earlier preliminary findings (Van Elsacker et al 1994): MGA implants inhibited reproduction through the suppression of ovulation and regular ovarian cycles in the implanted female, while the occurrence of ovarian cycles in the oldest female offspring of each group was not affected. Sexual interactions between the dominant adults still occurred but underwent temporal changes. Reproductive inhibition in female offspring was maintained. Social interactions between group members altered in a non-consistent way but did not have an impact on the stability of the study groups during the study. In principle, MGA implants do not have a detrimental impact on the behaviour of group members. The suitability of MGA implants from a behavioural point of view depends on the extent to which those involved wish to preserve the entire range of natural behaviours for this species. The behavioural effects of other contraceptive methods are still largely unknown.

Free-ranging pet cats (Felis catus) frequently kill wildlife but also return live prey to their owners. This raises welfare concerns if live animals released by cat owners subsequently die, since this is preventable, eg through prompt euthanasia. To estimate the mortality rate of birds released alive by cat owners, we examined the fates of 3,597 cat-attacked individuals submitted to four RSPCA wildlife centres in the UK. Individuals from 64 species were received but most cases (77%) involved just seven species commonly found in urban areas. The overall mortality rate (based on all individuals received at centres, ie including those which perished in transport, those which were euthanased on arrival and those which were admitted for care after having been triaged) was 78%; the post-admittance mortality rate (n = 2,070 birds admitted for care) was 62%. On average, individuals that perished (n = 2,798) survived for 3.0 days before dying or being euthanased. Juveniles were more likely to survive to release than adults, possibly because their small size means they are less likely to receive injuries that are ultimately fatal. Extrapolating from the limited data currently available, and applying conservative estimates at each stage, we estimate that a minimum of 0.3 million birds are released annually by cat owners but subsequently die. Substantial welfare improvements could be achieved if owners were more prepared to adopt strategies to limit hunting behaviour (eg fitting cats with collars and bells) and if owners and rehabilitators were able to effectively identify individuals with fatal injuries. The latter will require studies that quantify the effects of identifiable physical injuries on the likelihood of survival to release, in order to establish effective triage criteria.

Ethological observations of the introduction of new charges into a large mixed-sex group in a dog shelter, and the later behaviour of the dogs in the run, were used to investigate a method of early assessment of the dogs’ reactions to the new situation. Subjects were divided qualitatively into four categories according to their interactional behaviour during the first two days (‘dog-oriented’, ‘human-oriented’, ‘dog & human friendly’, ‘asocial’). This classification was compared to an independent division resulting from statistical analysis of the dogs ‘ entry-sequences, and was found to be consistent for 80 per cent of dogs. One week after entry, both female and male dogs received distinctively fewer social interactions by conspecifics and tended to direct more interaction-initiating behaviour towards the keeper, thus demonstrating an integration process; females became more physically active and initiated significantly more interactions with other dogs; for males, the contrary was found. Qualitative comparison between first visitors and regular guests suggest that experienced dogs integrate faster, showing fewer behavioural signs of distress and engaging more often in investigatory behaviour. Results indicate that the assessment of dogs from their behaviour during the entry-sequence is a valid method to predict later tendencies. Males and females should be handled differently during introduction. The stress of entry into an existing group can therefore be reduced, improving the animals’ welfare.

Moles are widely trapped as pests on farms and amenity land in Britain. Spring traps for killing mammals generally require welfare approval in the UK, but mole traps are exempt. Previous research demonstrated wide variation in the mechanical performance of mole traps. In this context, we aimed to produce new data on the welfare impact of kill-trapping moles in the field. We collected 50 moles trapped in southern England (November 2008-August 2009). Captures peaked during the peak in male breeding activity, when captures were almost exclusively male. Post mortem and x-ray (radiation) examinations were conducted to determine injuries and likely cause of death. No moles sustained damaged skulls or upper cervical vertebrae (which could cause unconsciousness immediately). The primary identifiable cause of death for all but one mole was acute haemorrhage; this contrasts with the findings of the only previous such study, in which only one mole showed clear evidence of haemorrhaging. Some moles may have asphyxiated although it was not possible to determine this. Moles most likely became unconscious before death, but times to unconsciousness, and death, can be determined only through killing trials and further investigation is urgently needed. This should be done through the spring traps approval process; this could improve the welfare standards of trapping for many thousands of moles each year. Mole trapping for long-term population control might be better targeted after the peak in male breeding activity, when females are more likely to be caught, but this would threaten the welfare of dependent young underground.

Walking ability is related to motor co-ordination which, in rodents, can be assessed by an established test in pharmacological studies — the rotarod test. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a modified rotarod test for chickens and its relation to the often-used gait score system. At the end of their rearing period, we tested 138 male chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) from three differing growth performance strains: Ross 308 (fast-growing; n = 46), Lohmann Dual (medium-growing; n = 46) and Lohmann Brown Plus (slow-growing; n = 46). First, the chickens’ gait scores were assessed and, immediately following this, they were placed gently onto a steady rod. The velocity of the rotating rod gradually increased, and the latency to leave the rod was recorded. By using a linear mixed model, we were able to show that the latency to leave the rotating rod was significantly predicted by the gait score. Fast-growing chickens had shorter durations on the rotating rod, and these durations were associated with gait score. We conclude that the rotarod test provides an objective alternative method for assessing walking ability in chickens without the need for intense observer training or the risk of observer biases and propose that this novel methodology has the potential to function as a precise, objective indicator of animal welfare.

The objective of this study was to identify the extent of pre-stun shocks in a commercial broiler processing plant and to collect any evidence of their effect on broiler carcase and meat quality. The results showed that the degree of bird movement on entry to the water-bath was related to the incidence of pre-stun shocks, with heavier male birds showing less movement and correspondingly lower levels of pre-stun shocks. In a separate trial, 500 birds identified as receiving a pre-stun shock were compared with 500 control birds (no pre-stun shock). They were assessed for carcase downgrading conditions, red wing tips, wing haemorrhages, shoulder haemorrhages, breast muscle haemorrhages, the incidence of broken pectoral bones and also for meat quality defects. All downgrading conditions were subjectively assessed using photographic standards. The results of this study have shown that the incidence of pre-stun shocks has a significant effect both on carcase downgrading conditions and on meat quality. Pre-stun shocks are preventable and the poultry processing industry can improve both bird welfare and carcase and meat quality by ensuring that they do not occur.

The welfare of zoo animals depends on a combination of physical, social, dietary and other ecological characteristics of the captive setting. We analysed the influence of the transfer of an adult couple of hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) from a small and non-enriched cage that was closed to the public to a larger and enriched exhibit at the visitation area of the Sapucaia do Sul Zoological Park, RS, Brazil. A total of 350 h divided into four stages were spent observing the baboons: (i) in the non-enriched enclosure before the transfer; (ii) soon after the transfer to the enriched enclosure; (iii) six months; and (iv) 12 months after the transfer. The occurrence of stereotypic, social aggressive and social affiliative behaviours was recorded by ‘all occurrences’ sampling. The female showed a decrease in frequency of a stereotypic behaviour (spinning) and an increase in grooming in the enriched enclosure. The male showed a decrease in the frequency of certain stress-related or stereotypic behaviours after transfer, but other stress-related behaviours either increased or remained constant. The male behaviour of throwing faeces was affected by the presence of visitors. We suggest that the well-being of the female was more positively influenced by the new enclosure than that of the male, although gender differences may reflect the normal behavioural repertoire of this sexually dimorphic species.

For over a century the practice of deflighting has taken place in zoological collections in order to ensure birds remain in open-topped enclosures. Over time, efforts have been made to improve or develop new (surgical) techniques, reduce risk of complications during deflighting and minimise stress and pain during the procedure. However, increased public interest in issues of animal welfare has coincided with a questioning of the practice of removing a bird's ability to fly. The ensuing debate, which continues to progress among a variety of differing stakeholders, has led to various legislative adjustments across a number of countries. Despite significant legislation, the dialogue has been both subjective and highly emotive. A plethora of opinions exist as to why deflighting should be outlawed, why it is necessary, or how it has the potential to improve a bird's living conditions. However, most are based on assumption or issues unrelated to welfare. To the authors’ knowledge, to date, no scientific data have been published on the welfare implications of deflighting for the commonly deflighted bird species, such as waterfowl, flamingos (Phoenicopteridae), pelicans (Pelecanidae), storks (Ciconiidae), cranes (Gruidae) and herons (Ardeidae). The aim of this study is to present an overview of the relevance of deflighting to zoo husbandry, the species primarily affected, the techniques currently in use, the legality in differing countries and the extent of scientific knowledge as regards potential ethological and welfare concerns. An urgent need for evidence-based studies is highlighted, to further inform this practice at a species-specific level.

Cages for laboratory and pet hamsters are usually small. Using video recordings, the behaviour of sixty female golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus), housed individually in four different cage sizes, was compared in order to draw conclusions about their welfare. The cage sizes were 1,800 cm2, 2,500 cm2, 5,000 cm2, and 10,000 cm2. Enrichment items and litter depth were standardised and all cages were equipped with a running-wheel (30 cm diameter). Stereotypic wire-gnawing, usage of the provided space, weight gain, and reactions to mild husbandry stressors were used as welfare indicators. Stereotypic wire-gnawing was observed in all cage sizes, but hamsters in small cages gnawed significantly longer and more frequently. There were no significant differences in running-wheel activity. In small cages hamsters made use of the roof of their wooden shelters as an additional platform more often than in big cages, which could suggest that they needed more space. Therefore, the welfare of pet golden hamsters in cages with a minimal ground floor area of 10,000 cm2 seemed to be enhanced compared with smaller cages.