Three housing systems for fattening rabbits were compared using a stocking density of 15 rabbits m–2. The rabbits were housed in large pens (3.67 m2, 50 rabbits), small pens (0.66 m2, 10 rabbits) or in conventional standard cages (0.39 m2, 6 rabbits) from 31 to 72 days of age. Rabbits housed in each small pen or in each cage belonged to the same litter, and the 50 rabbits housed in each large pen were from six or seven litters. At the end of fattening, when rabbits were 72 days old, there was no significant difference in the weight of rabbits from the three different housing systems, even though the rabbits from small pens were slightly heavier in weight compared with rabbits from large pens. The best feed conversion ratio was found in rabbits from cages, but was only significantly different from rabbits housed in small pens. No significant differences were found in the main activities: nutrition, social behaviour, resting, and standing; however, the frequency of runs, hops and consecutive hops was significantly higher in rabbits from large pens compared with rabbits from the two other housing systems. These results confirm that the total surface area available for animals is the most important factor for such locomotory activities. This study did not reveal any significant difference in aggressive behaviours between rabbits from different litters housed in large pens and between rabbits from the same litter housed in small pens or cages.

Accurate identification of key welfare issues for captive elephants could improve standards and help in the development of a welfare index. In the absence of adequate scientific information on the relative importance of key issues, the views of a range of stakeholders were sought using adaptive conjoint analysis. Fifteen key welfare issues were identified by experts, and three to six Levels of each, representing common husbandry practices. In order of declining importance, 224 stakeholders rated the issues as enclosure substrate > group size > healthcare > enrichment > chaining > enclosure type > exercise provision > enclosure size > interaction with keeper > enclosure environment > keeper knowledge/experience > diet > contact method with keeper > display duration > enclosure security. Enclosure size was considered more important by scientists and keepers than zoo directors/managers and animal welfare organisation representatives. Animal welfare organisation representatives rated enclosure security higher than scientists. Keeper husbandry methods and ability of elephants to be active were two principal components in responses. Three principal groups of respondents were identified: scientists/veterinarians focusing more on conditions for the elephants and less on interaction with the public; keepers, focusing on keeper contact method, feeding and knowledge of elephants; and a group with mainly animal welfare organisation representatives/zoo directors focusing on enclosure security. It is concluded that there are some differences between stakeholders in their recognition of the most important welfare issues for elephants in zoos. However, recognising that a diversity of informed opinion is necessary to adequately devise welfare standards, an index of elephant welfare in zoos is proposed, based on the relative merits of different husbandry practices and the importance of the different issues.

The natural protective behaviour displayed by Konik Polski horses against flies was investigated. The factors considered were age (adults versus foals), management system (forest reserve versus pasture), weather conditions and type of horse activity. Twenty-five Konik Polski adults and 18 foals were observed between 0800 and 2000h during two summer seasons (2000 and 2001). Individual protective behaviours (IB) eg tail swishing, head shaking, leg lifting, skin twitching and social protective behaviour (grouping for mutual protection) against insects were studied. Adult and forest-kept horses performed more IB than foals and pastured horses, respectively. Wet and windy weather conditions significantly reduced insect harassment and the frequency of responses to insects. Therefore, if it is not possible to apply chemical repellents against insects, then allowing horses to aggregate into groups or providing them with refuge, especially on hot and windless days, may have significant welfare benefits.

Infra-red thermography (IRT) is a non-invasive tool for measuring eye temperature as an indicator of stress and welfare in animals. Previous studies state that images are taken from 90° but do not specify a reference point or method of standardisation. The aims of the current study were to determine whether the position of the IRT camera has an impact on recorded temperature and which camera position is optimal for indicating stress in a mammal with anterolateral eyes. IRT images were taken from 90° to the nasal plane, eye and sagittal plane on the left side of the horses’ faces (n = 14) at eye level before and after exposure to a novel object. Distance and angle of measurement was standardised using ground markers. Temperature at each point of measurement was compared against heart rate variability. A significant difference was found between recorded temperature at all three of the points of measurement, both before and after the novel object test, suggesting that IRT camera position has an impact on eye temperature results. There was a significant strong positive correlation between eye temperature taken from 90° to the sagittal plane and heart rate variability, but no such correlation was observed from 90° to the nasal plane or eye. This suggests that a 90° angle in relation to the sagittal plane is the optimal position for taking eye temperature measurements using IRT, whereas 90° to the eye is commonly used. This study offers a validated protocol for using IRT to measure stress and welfare in mammals with anterolateral eyes.

Captive primates are usually fed on monkey chow, a high-energy food designed to provide a complete and balanced diet for primates. In addition to the nutritional value of a food, its palatability, frequency of presentation in the daily diet and sensory stimulation may also be important for determining whether it is accepted by the animals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the food preferences of 26 captive capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) using monkey chow and a variety of foods, which ranged from being very familiar to completely novel to the monkeys, and to assess whether the frequency of presentation in the daily diet and sensory stimulation affected their food preferences. Food preferences were scored in terms of the food item chosen and whether it was then eaten. In Experiment 1, subjects encountered paired combinations of seven familiar foods (present in the monkeys' diet with different frequencies), including monkey chow. In Experiments 2 and 3, monkey chow was paired with seven novel foods (not previously present in the monkeys' diet) and seven ex-novel foods (previously only encountered repeatedly during an earlier experiment) respectively. The results show that monkey chow, despite its high energy content, was not very attractive to capuchin monkeys. Other familiar foods (especially those not presented daily) were chosen and eaten more frequently than the monkey chow, and novel foods were chosen more frequently than the monkey chow. The findings of this study have implications for the feeding husbandry of captive primates. Familiar foods presented in the diet each day are less preferred; therefore good practice would be to alternate foods over time. Occasional presentation of novel food items could be a stimulating and economical method of providing sensory enrichment.

Animal welfare presents particular policy challenges. Good welfare provides private productivity benefits to producers and some level of positive external benefit to people who care about animal welfare status. But markets for welfare fail, meaning that private producers are unlikely to provide the correct level of external benefit and social welfare will not be maximised. Accordingly, there is a rationale for government to be involved in the provision of animal welfare. The public good nature of animal welfare supply presents policy challenges for government regulators. Specifically, in setting regulatory targets, Defra, as the regulator, aims to maximise social welfare by designing regulation that delivers benefits that are at least equal to regulatory costs at the margin. This means that regulatory targets must be informed by some assessment of benefits of welfare policies. This paper considers this problem in the context of the proposed EU Directive on broiler welfare. The paper describes the application of the contingent valuation method to measure the economic benefits of broiler welfare, and considers how the results inform welfare target setting.

One commonly used method of managing confiscated wild primates in Latin American countries is to release rehabilitated individuals back to their natural habitats. However, little information has been collected from confiscated animal releases, so no clear guidelines have been developed to measure the success of this type of procedure. In most countries, the collection of critical post-release data is too costly and time-consuming for it to be incorporated into the routine procedures of institutions managing confiscated fauna. Therefore, this project was carried out in conditions similar to those of other Colombian and Latin American rehabilitation centres. A group of eight confiscated and rehabilitated brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) was released in Los Llanos Orientales in Colombia, and monitored for 6.5 months to determine their adaptation and survival after release. Results were analysed according to how the animals adapted to their new environment in terms of foraging, feeding, locomotion, sleeping, social interactions between the group and with other animals and species, prédation, orientation, and establishment of a territory. The results show that the short-term adaptation and survival of the group 6.5 months after release was successful. Five of the eight animals remained together, two separated, and only one was lost during the first month. Implications for animal well-being are discussed.

Given the increased interest in animal emotional reactions for assessing welfare, indicators for such reactions are sought. Ear postures and movements have been found to be promising indicators of emotional states in sheep and other animals. The manual recording of ear postures, however, is very time consuming and possibly prone to a degree of inaccuracy due to the subtle and fast nature of ear movements that have to be identified. Therefore, a number of previous studies have analysed the frequency of certain ear postures relative to all ear posture changes rather than measuring the relative duration spent with different ear postures. Here, we present an automated, continuous tracking system that keeps track of small and lightweight marker balls attached to the head and ears of sheep. We measured ear postures and movements when the animals were confronted with three physical stimuli thought to differ in valence (from negative to intermediate to positive). We then compared new ear-posture definitions reflecting the real time spent with certain ear postures during stimulation with previous definitions used for video-based analyses that assessed ear-posture changes in relation to the total number of observed ear postures. In the analysis, we correlated new and previous measures both between and within experimental stimuli using residuals from mixed-effects models. We found that the new and previous definitions of ear postures and movements correlated highly. Given these high correlations and the discussed theoretical and practical advantages of the automated tracking, the new recording system can be recommended highly for assessing reactions in animals that may indicate emotional states.

Mirrors can enrich the environment of some social animals kept in isolation. In this study, the effect of mirrors on the behaviour of isolated, or partially isolated, caged rabbits was tested. In a changeover experiment, four treatments were investigated: isolated without mirrors; partially isolated (with a conspecific housed behind a partition) without mirrors; isolated with mirrors; and partially isolated with mirrors. Behaviour was recorded during the first hour for which the rabbits were in the cages with the stimuli, and then again after one week. Initially, the rabbits' alertness increased, which may be because they perceived the mirror image to be a potential threat. The mirrors also stimulated investigation by the rabbits, which initially scraped them rapidly with their forepaws (scrabbling) and sniffed them. Although sniffing was maintained until the end of the week, scrabbling was not, probably because the rabbits failed to elicit the normal reactions of a conspecific from their mirror images. Mirrors also reduced the time rabbits spent sitting in their living area looking out of the cage, and increased their behavioural complexity, as determined from the number of behaviours performed per minute. In a second experiment, the responses of seven rabbits to four stimuli were recorded: a conspecific; a toy animal; a mirror; and a blank card. The rabbits were presented with pairs of stimuli at either end of a marked board. The responses of the rabbits to mirrors were more similar to their responses to a blank card or to a soft toy than to a conspecific. Although the rabbits did not respond to mirror images as if they were conspecifics, the mirrors may have had benefits to the complexity of behaviour of rabbits in small cages.

Some physiological variables which could aid in assessing the welfare of beef cattle in feedlots were screened in this exploratory study. In two experiments, each of 42 days duration, the physiological responses of Bos taurus steers to three treatments were investigated: pasture (rotation between 1.5 hectare paddocks); a feedlot yard stocked at 12.0 m2 per head with a dry, firm pen surface; and a ‘high-density’ feedlot yard stocked at 6.0 m2 per head with a wet and muddy pen surface. Fourteen steers were used per group per experiment. Relative adrenal mass in both feedlot groups was 8-10% higher than in the pasture group, and this finding was supported by morphological measurements of the adrenal glands. Out of 17 immune variables examined, only serum IgA and the T-cell lymphocytes subpopulation WC+1 showed consistent differences between the feedlot and pasture groups. Interestingly, no differences were observed between the two feedlot treatments. It was concluded that although there may have been some disruption of epithelial/mucosal immunity, more support was required from other immune variables before it could be stated that the immune system was depressed and that pre-pathological states existed in the feedlot groups. However, measures of relative adrenal weight, adrenal index, serum IgA and WC1+ lymphocytes are good candidates for use in future welfare investigations of feedlot cattle.

This study aimed to develop a scientific and practical tool to be used to assess horse welfare after commercial transport over long journeys. A set of physical, behavioural and environmental measures was selected, covering welfare aspects of both transport and unloading procedures. The protocol was field-tested on 51 intra-EU commercial transports arriving at different sites in Italy. Univariate analysis was implemented to look for associations between the input variables (environmental hazards potentially affecting the animal well-being during long transports) and the outcome variables (direct evaluation of the animal condition). No severe welfare impairments were recorded (ie dead on arrival, severe injuries, non-ambulatory animals), while milder ones were more frequent at unloading (eg slipping; 36.7%, reluctance to move; 9.6%). Correlations emerged between ramp slope and falling; type of ramp floor and slipping; fast gait and the presence of gaps between the ramp and the floor. The horses’ behaviour was also related to the type of handling procedure used. The measures were repeatable and practical to apply and score during real-time unloading. This work provides a sound basis for a new and practical welfare assessment tool for horses travelling over long journeys. Careful and constant application of this protocol would provide stakeholders with the opportunity to track and monitor changes in the industry over time, as well as to identify high risk areas in transport routines.

Consumers now demand evidence of welfare assurance at all stages of animal production, marketing, transport and slaughter. In response, retailers have increasingly adopted preferred supply chain relationships which preclude sourcing animals via livestock auction markets. One of the criteria dictating this action is a perceived improvement in animal welfare resulting from direct transport from farm to abattoir.

A survey of complete journey structures of 18 393 slaughterweight lambs from farm to abattoir was conducted between April and July 1997. Journeys were characterized in terms of distances travelled, duration and the number of discrete components within a whole journey which comprised: transport; trans-shipping (when animals were transferred from one vehicle to another); multiple pickups from a number of farms; and holding at either assembly points, lairages or auction markets. The results identified that journeys in the livestock distribution system are diverse and range in complexity, irrespective of marketing channel. Journey complexity was found to be positively related to distance travelled.

The study demonstrates that discussions concerning welfare of livestock in transit should consider the journey structure and not just the marketing channel per se. Furthermore, it also shows that changes taking place in the infrastructure of the marketing and meat processing sectors may result in a reduction in animal welfare.

The integration of outcome-based measurements to animal welfare assessment programmes can provide a new perspective on the individual animal's experience. Identifying variability in individual experiences can facilitate understanding of animals at the periphery of the welfare spectrum, compared to those at the average. Welfare Quality® physical measurements and behavioural observations were taken from the same fifteen non-cage laying hens throughout their production cycle. The average amount of time performing each of nine behaviours and the amount of variation in each behaviour's performance was compared at four different ages: 19, 28, 48 and 66 weeks. The same analysis was performed for all Welfare Quality® physical measurements. To identify associations between a hen's behaviour and her physical condition, a cluster analysis was performed for all ages, as well as on data collated from all ages. No differences were observed among the four ages for the average amount of time performing many of the behaviours, but the amount of variability differed for most behaviours observed. Physical measurements taken at 19 weeks differed from those taken at later ages. Bodyweight consistently clustered with time spent preening, yet the patterns of clustering differed at each age. These results highlight the importance of age when conducting welfare assessments. Auditors also should report not only the average, but the variability of responses; while the average response of the flock may appear consistent across time or treatment, differences among the hens within the same flock may vary drastically.

Personalised identification (ID) tags that contain the contact information of pet owners can help ensure a pet gets home quickly. Recent research found that even though ID tags can help get pets home, the majority of pet owners do not consistently provide ID tags. The objectives of this study were to identify the number of animals at our study site wearing an ID tag as well as the owners’ reasons for not having them do so and to evaluate the attitudes and perceptions of owners towards pet identification. Pet owners were surveyed when visiting one of five veterinary hospitals and a low cost spay/neuter clinic in Oklahoma City, USA. Out of the 291 pets in the survey, only 59 (20.3%) were currently wearing an ID tag with correct information. When asked how important it was for pets to wear identification, 79.6% of the surveyed pet owners reported it was very or extremely important with only 0.7% reporting that ID tags were not at all important. The most common reason for not placing a tag on their pet was that their pet was ‘indoor only’ (35.3%), with another 10% reporting their pet did not wear ID because the pet was uncomfortable wearing a collar. The results of this research suggest that a high percentage of pets do not have ID tags and that a programme to place ID tags directly onto the pets has a good potential for success, as there is a positive attitude toward tagging among pet owners.

In the event of a notifiable disease outbreak, poultry may need to be culled in situ. This should be performed swiftly and humanely to prevent further spread of the pathogen while preserving the welfare of the animals prior to death. Here, we examined the aversion of broiler chicks (Gallus domesticus) to three lethal gas mixtures at various concentrations to determine the least aversive mix that could be used in whole-house gassing. For 1 h, individual chicks (n = 36) were allowed to place their heads inside three feeding and drinking stations (FDS) in order to access food and water. Each FDS was filled with a different gas mixture, and birds could access each FDS as much as they liked. Twelve chicks each were tested at low (50% carbon dioxide [CO2] in air, 70% argon [Ar] in CO2, 70% nitrogen [N2] in CO2), medium (55% CO2 in air, 80% Ar in CO2, 80% N2 in CO2) or high (60% CO2 in air, 90% Ar in CO2, 90% N2 in CO2) concentrations of gas mixtures. Aversion was assessed based on the time birds spent with head in each FDS (with more time indicating less aversive), and the frequency of head shakes relative to time spent with head in the FDS (with a lower proportion indicating less aversive). Data were analysed by ANOVA. On average, birds spent < 3 min with their head in any FDS. Mixtures containing 90% Ar or N2 in CO2 and 80% argon in CO2 were least aversive and mixtures containing 70% N2 in CO2 and 60% CO2 in air were most aversive, based on time spent with head in. Head shakes s−1 were more frequent with low concentration gas mixtures compared to high concentrations, and with all CO2 in air mixtures, which suggests that the intensity of head shaking is related to the concentrations of CO2. From these results, one concentration of each of the three gas mixtures (90% N2 in CO2, 80% Ar in CO2, and 50% CO2 in air) were chosen for assessment on a further 12 birds and the results showed that both inert gas mixtures were less aversive than 50% CO2 in air based on time spent with head in. Frequency of head shakes s−1 did not differ between the three mixtures. Birds found all gases aversive, however it is concluded that inert gas in CO2 mixtures were least aversive compared to CO2 in air and these gases also caused less signs of respiratory discomfort.

Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) are a widely used model species in parasitology and epilepsy research. Under standard laboratory housing conditions gerbils develop stereotypic digging, a behavioural abnormality, which is caused by the lack of a burrow in the laboratory cage. Here we show that gerbils reared with access to an opaque artificial burrow (nest-box with access tube) develop significantly less stereotypic digging than those reared with transparent artificial burrows. Subadult gerbils also preferred opaque artificial burrows to transparent ones. Based on these findings we developed an artificial burrow system that could be integrated into laboratory Makrolon Type IV cages to prevent the development of stereotypic digging in gerbils by addressing their behavioural needs. Faecal cortisol levels were measured as a non-invasive method of comparing stress reactions in gerbils given access to the new integrated artificial burrow system or to an equivalent transparent burrow. Behavioural differences were observed between gerbils in the two housing conditions, but faecal cortisol levels were unaffected. We conclude that simple refinement of housing is effective in improving gerbil welfare in the laboratory.

The study examined cattle farmers' and veterinarians' opinions of pain-induced distress associated with disbudding and attitudes towards non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). An emphasis was placed on investigating pain perception, veterinary-client communication and factors influencing analgesic use. Data were collected from an online questionnaire, links to which were published in professional periodicals, promoted by industry organisations and distributed on private practice mailing lists. A total of 110 veterinarians and 116 farmers who regularly disbud calves completed the questionnaires. Of the respondents, 56% of veterinarians and 14% of farmers routinely use NSAIDs for disbudding. Respondents perceived disbudding to be severely painful without medication and 82% of veterinarians and 43% of farmers perceived post-procedural pain to persist beyond 24 h. There was a significant difference between female and male veterinarians' pain scores for disbudding without medication. Veterinarians underestimate the influences of welfare and analgesic duration and effectiveness on farmers' decisions and overrated cost impact. The study highlights that improvements in veterinarian-farmer communication regarding calf disbudding analgesia are required; both in terms of refining veterinarians' understanding of farmers' priorities and guiding clients on methods to improve calf welfare.

The confined environment of the dog shelter, particularly over extensive time-periods can impact severely on welfare. Surveillance and assessment are therefore essential components of the welfare protocol. The aim of this study was to generate a descriptive analysis of a sample of Italian long-term shelters and identify potential hazards regarding the welfare of shelter dogs. This was achieved through application of the Shelter Quality Protocol (SQP) to link income/outcome variables and the inclusion of sixty-four long-term shelters in Italy. Descriptive and logistic regression analyses were conducted. Key findings showed feeding regime, type of diet and access to outdoor area to be significantly associated with inadequate body condition score (BCS). The probability of observing skin lesions was shown to be influenced by bedding inadequacy and bedding type. Limiting beds to one per dog and utilising clean bedding materials was significantly associated with a reduced probability of observing dirty/wet dogs. Protection from adverse weather conditions and inadequate bedding were significantly associated with the manifestation of polypnea. Non-existent dog training facilities, outdoor access or leash walking were all found to significantly increase the likelihood of fearful or aggressive attitudes to people. Outdoor access also, in conjunction with feeding regime, was associated with the presence of diarrhoea. The SQP proved useful in identifying welfare hazards, both as regards shelter environment and shelter management. Identification of these hazards creates the opportunity for interventions to be applied, minimising the risks and improving the welfare of long-term shelter dogs.

Qualitative Behaviour Assessment of cattle expression using a fixed rating scale of 20 descriptors is one of the measures of the Welfare Quality® (WQ) assessment protocol for dairy cattle. As for other on-farm measures of welfare, reliability is an important issue especially if farms are to be certified. This study investigated the repeatability of QBA results across three different observation times during the day (early morning, late morning, early afternoon). For this purpose, 13 observers assessed a total of 30 video clips from ten commercial dairy farms using visual analogue scales to score the 20 QBA terms. QBA scores for ‘emotional state’ were computed according to the Welfare Quality® protocol (WQ_QBA) and, additionally, a Principal Component Analysis was carried out. The latter revealed two main dimensions which may be described as ‘mood’ and ‘activity’, the former thus corresponding to the ‘emotional state’ score of the WQ protocol. Both for scores derived from the WQ protocol and from PCA, mixed model analysis for repeated measures revealed a significant effect of observation time depending on the farm. Mixed model analysis for repeated measures revealed a significant effect of observation time for three farms out of ten on both the WQ_QBA score and the PCA ‘mood’ dimension; a similar effect was found for eight out of ten farms for the PCA ‘activity’ dimension. These results indicate that observation time potentially affects WQ (and other QBA) outcomes on a proportion of farms. However, given that outcomes for WQ_QBA and PCA ‘mood’ were consistent for the majority of farms, procedures suggested in the Welfare Quality® protocol may constitute a reasonable compromise between reliability and feasibility. If the QBA assessment should reflect the ‘mean mood’, multiple assessments throughout the day may be carried out.

In sheep (Ovis aries) and other farm animals, routine husbandry procedures can cause negative emotions, such as fear, which are generally considered to reduce animal welfare. The open-field test (OFT) is the most widely used test to measure fearfulness in animals. The induction of psychological stress is often accompanied by an elevation of core body temperature, referred to as stress-induced hyperthermia (SIH) and both OFT and SIH were used in this study to measure fearfulness in sheep: the aim being to examine associations between behaviour in the OFT and the SIH response, using data from two breeds of sheep tested repeatedly over time. Twentyfour ewes from two breeds, Lacaune and Ripollesa, were tested for 10 min with all behaviours recorded throughout. Rectal temperature was measured immediately prior to the start of the test (T1) and 10 min after its completion (T2). SIH was measured as the difference between T2 and T1. Sheep were tested over three periods of three experimental days each. Ewes of both breeds showed consistent changes in behaviour in the OFT and a clear SIH response. Bleats and visits to the water bucket showed a clear pattern between rounds. Differences between T1 and T2 were found, T2 was higher than T1 suggesting that exposure to a novel arena caused SIH. Breed differences were found whereby T2 was 0.12°C higher in Ripollesa than Lacaune. These findings have implications for selection programmes, creating the possibility of selecting less fearful animals that will cope better with handling procedures that may induce fear. Further, they also demonstrate the importance of using both behavioural and physiological variables to evaluate fear.