Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-qdpjg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-23T14:58:42.661Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

32 - Multimedia Learning in Virtual Reality

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2012

By
Sue Cobb  and
Danaë Stanton Fraser
Edited by
Richard Mayer
Sue Cobb
Affiliation:
University of Nottingham
Danaë Stanton Fraser
Affiliation:
University of Bath
Richard Mayer
Affiliation:
University of California, Santa Barbara
Get access

Summary

Abstract

This chapter reviews the use of virtual reality to aid learning. First we give a description of virtual reality technology and the diverse ways in which it can be viewed and interacted with. Virtual reality has been used to support different types of learning in a variety of application areas including medical training, mainstream and special needs education, and rehabilitation. An overview of exemplary research in these areas is presented. Limitations of current research knowledge are discussed and recommendations for further work are made.

Introduction to Multimedia Learning in Virtual Reality

There are no single concise or generally accepted definitions of virtual reality and virtual environments. This is partly due to the continual state of evolution of the many technologies involved and also the terms being used in a variety of contexts. The Cambridge online dictionary defines virtual as; “something that can be done or seen using a computer and therefore without going anywhere or talking to anyone.” It defines virtual reality as “a set of images and sounds produced by a computer, which seem to represent a place or a situation that a person can experience or take part in” (http://dictionary.cambridge.org). The definition used in this chapter is that virtual reality describes the combination of systems comprising computer processing (PC-based or higher), a building platform for creating three-dimensional environments, and peripherals such as visual display and interaction devices that are used to create and maintain virtual environments. Virtual environments refer to the three-dimensional environments created.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning , pp. 525 - 548
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Astur, R. S., Taylor, L. B., Mamelak, A. N.Philpott, L., & Sutherland, R. J. (2002). Humans with hippocampus damage display severe spatial memory impairments in a virtual Morris water task. Behavioural Brain Research, 132, 77–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Attree, E. A., Brooks, B. M., Rose, F. D., Andrews, T. K., Leadbetter, A. G., & Clifford, B. R. (1996). Memory processes and virtual environments: I can't remember what was there, but I can remember how I got there. Implications for people with disabilities. In Sharkey, Paul M. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1st European Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies (pp. 117–123). Maidenhead, EnglandGoogle Scholar
Barab, S. A., Hay, K. E., Barnett, M., & Squire, K. (2001). Constructing virtual worlds: Tracing the historical development of learner practices. Cognition and Instruction, 19(1), 47–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, D. R. (1992). Virtual training devices: illusion or reality? Proceedings of the 14th Annual Interservice/Industry Training Systems and Education Conference
Bell, J. T. & Fogler, H. S. (1995, June). The Investigation and application of virtual reality as an educational tool. Proceedings of the American Society for Engineering Education. 1995 annual conference, session number 2513, Anaheim, CA
Bricken, M. (1991). Virtual reality learning environments: Potentials and challenges. Computer Graphics, 25(3) 178–184CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, B. M., Rose, F. D., Potter, J., Attree, E. A., Jayawardena, S., & Morling, A. (2002). Assessing stroke patients' ability to remember to perform actions in the future using virtual reality. In Sharkey, P., Lányi, C. S. & Standen, P. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies, Hungary, 239–245
Brooks, B. M., Rose, F. D., Potter, J., Jayawardena, S., & Morling, A. (in press). Assessing stroke patients' prospective memory using virtual reality. Brain InjuryGoogle Scholar
Brown, D. J., Kerr, S. J., & Bayon, V. (1988, September). The development of the virtual city. In Sharkey, P., Rose, D., & Lindstrom, J. I. (Eds.), The 2nd European Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies (pp. 89–98). Skovde, SwedenGoogle Scholar
Brown, D. J., Neale, H. R., Cobb, S. V. G., & Reynolds, H. R. (1999). Development and evaluation of the virtual city. The International Journal of Virtual Reality. Special disability issueGoogle Scholar
Brown, D. J., Standen, P. J., & Cobb, S. V. (1998). Virtual environments, special needs and evaluative methods. In Riva, G., Wiederhold, B. K., & Molinari, E. (Eds.), Virtual environments in clinical psychology: scientific and technological challenges in advanced patient-therapist interaction (pp. 91–103). Amsterdam: IOS PressGoogle Scholar
Byrne, C., & Furness, T. (1994). Virtual reality and education. IFIP Transactions, Computer Science and Technology, 58, 181–189Google Scholar
Campos, J., Svejda, M., Campos, R., & Bertenthal, B. (1982). The emergence of self-produced locomotion: Its importance for psychological development in infancy. In Bricker, D. (Ed.), Intervention with at-risk and handicapped infants. Baltimore: University Park PressGoogle Scholar
Chapuis, N., Durup, M., & Thinus-Blanc, C. (1987). The role of exploratory experience in a shortcut task by golden hamsters. Animal Learning and Behaviour, 15(2), 174–178CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cobb, S., Beardon, L., Eastgate, R., Glover, T., Kerr, S., Neale, H., Parsons, S., Benford, S., Hopkins, E., Mitchell, P., Reynard, G., & Wilson, J. R. (2002). Applied virtual environments to support learning of social interaction skills in users with Asperger's Syndrome. Digital Creativity, 13(1), 11–22Google Scholar
Cobb, S., Kerr, S., & Glover, T. (2001, September). The AS interactive project: Developing virtual environments for social skills training in users with Asperger's Syndrome. Paper presented at Workshop on Robotic and Virtual Interaction Systems in Autism Therapy, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield
Cobb, S., Neale, H., Crosier, J., & Wilson, J. R. (2002). Development and evaluation of virtual environments for education. In Stanney, K. (Ed.), Virtual environment handbook (pp. 911–936). Mahwah, N. J: Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesGoogle Scholar
Cobb, S. V. G., Neale, H. R., & Reynolds, H. (1998, September). Evaluation of virtual learning environments. In Sharkey, P., Rose, D., Lindstrom, J. I. (Eds.), The 2nd European conference on disability, virtual reality and associated technologies (pp. 17–23). Skovde, SwedenGoogle Scholar
Cromby, J. J., Standen, P. J., & Brown, D. J. (1996). The potentials of virtual environments in the education and training of people with learning disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 40(6), 489–501CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crosier, J. (2001). Virtual environments in secondary science education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nottingham, England
Crosier, J. K., Cobb, S., & Wilson, J. R. (1999, March). Virtual reality in secondary science education – establishing teachers' priorities. Paper presented at CAL'99, London
Crosier, J., Cobb, S., & Wilson, J. R. (2001). Key Lessons for the Design and Integration of Virtual Environments in Secondary Science, Computers and Education, 38, 77–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D'Cruz, M. D. (1999). Structured evaluation of training in virtual environments. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nottingham, England
Dede, C. (1995). The evolution of constructivist learning environments: Immersion in distributed, virtual worlds. Educational Technology, 35(5), 46–52Google Scholar
Dede, C., Salzman, M., & Bower Loftin, R. B. (1996). ScienceSpace: Virtual realities for learning complex and abstract scientific concepts. Proceedings of VRAIS'96, 246–253Google Scholar
Dede, C., Salzman, M., Loftin, R. B., & Ash, K. (2000). The design of immersive virtual learning environments: Fostering deep understandings of complex scientific knowledge. In Jacobson, M. & Kozma, R. (Eds.), Innovations in science and mathematics education: Advanced designs for technologies of learning (pp. 361–413). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesGoogle Scholar
Druin, A. (2002). The role of children in the design of new technology. Behaviour and Information Technology, 21(1), 1–25Google Scholar
Druin, A., Alborzi, H., Boltman, A., Cobb, S., Montemayor, J., Neale, H., Platner, M., Porteous, J., Sherman, L., Simsarian, K., Stanton, D., Sundblad, Y., & Taxen, G. (2000). Participatory design with children: Techniques, challenges, and successes. Proceedings of The Participatory Design Conference PDC 2000. New York: ACM Press
Eastgate, R. M. (2001). The structured development of virtual environments: Enhancing functionality and interactivity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nottingham, England
Foreman, N., Stanton, D., Wilson, P., & Duffy, H. (2003). Successful transfer of spatial knowledge from a virtual to a real school environment in physically disabled children. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 9(2), 67–74Google Scholar
Foreman, N., Stanton, D., Wilson, P., Duffy, H., & Parnell, R. (in press). Transfer of spatial knowledge to a 2-level shopping mall in older people following virtual exploration. Environment and BehaviourGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton MifflinGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1966). The senses considered as perceptual systems. Boston: Houghton MifflinGoogle Scholar
Griffiths, G. D. (2001). Virtual environment usability and user competence: The Nottingham Assessment of Interaction within Virtual Environments (NAÏVE) Tool. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nottingham, England
Hay, K. E., Elliott, D. M., & Kim, B. (2002). Collaborative network-based virtual reality: The past, the present and the future of the Virtual Solar System Project. Proceedings of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, Boulder, Colorado, 519–520CrossRef
Johnson, A., Mohler, T., Ohlsson, S., & Gillingham, M. (1999). The Round Earth Project: Deep learning in a collaborative virtual world. In Loftin, B. & Hodges, L. (Eds.), Proceedings of the IEEEVR' 99 Conference. Houston, TX: IEEE Press, 164–171Google Scholar
Kalawsky, R. S. (1993). The science of virtual reality and virtual environments. Addison Wesley: Wokingham, BerksGoogle Scholar
Kalawsky, R. S. (1996). Exploiting virtual reality techniques in education and training: Technological issues. SIMAGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, R. S., & Fowlkes, J. E. (1992) Simulator sickness in polygenic and polysymptomatic: Implications for research. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 2(1), 23–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerr, S. J. (in press). Individualised scaffolded learning in desktop VR. The Virtual Reality Society JournalGoogle Scholar
Kerr, S. J. (in preparation). Scaffolded learning in virtual environments. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nottingham, England
Koleva, B., Schadelbach, H., Benford, S., & Greenhalgh, C. (2001, September–October). Experiencing a presentation through a mixed reality boundary. Proceedings of Group 01 (pp. 71–80). Colorado: ACM
Leonard, A., Mitchell, P., & Parsons, S. (2002, September). Finding a place to sit: A preliminary investigation into the effectiveness of virtual environments for social skills training for people with Autistic Spectrum Disorders. P. Shaskey, C. S. Lányi & P. Standen (Eds.), Proceedings of 4th ICDVRAT. Veszprem, Hungary. 249–257
Martínez-Jiménez, P., Pontes-Pedraja, A., Polo, J., & Climent-Bellido, M. S. (2003). Learning in chemistry with virtual laboratories. Journal of Chemical Education, 80, 346–352Google Scholar
Meakin, L., Wilkins, L., Gent, C., Brown, S., Moreledge, D., Gretton, C., Carlisle, M., McClean, C., Scott, J., Constance, J., & Mallett, A. (1998). User group involvement in the development of a virtual city. Paper presented at the 2nd European Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies, Skovde, Sweden
Mendozzi, L., Attree, E. A., Pugnetti, L., Barbieri, E., Rose, F. D., Moro, W., Loconte, A., Corrales, B., Maj, L., Elliott-Square, A., Massara, A. & Cutelli, E. (2000, September). The VIRT-Factory Trainer Project: A generic productive process to train persons with learning disabilities. The International Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies – ICDVRAT2000, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy
McClean, P., Saini-Eidukat, B., Schwert, D. P., Slator, B. M., & White, A. (2001). Virtual worlds in large enrollment science classes significantly improve authentic learning. In Chambers, Jack A. (Ed)., Selected papers from the 12th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning (pp. 111–118), Jacksonville, FLGoogle Scholar
Middleton, T. (1992). Advanced technologies for enhancing education. Journal of Microcomputer applications, 1, 1–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, W. L., & Economou, D. (1999). Understanding context and medium in the development of educational VEs. In Smith, S. and Harrison, M. (Eds.), Proceedings of the workshop on User centred design and implementation of virtual environments (pp. 109–115). University of YorkGoogle Scholar
Mohl, R. (1981). Cognitive space in the interactive movie map: An investigation of spatial learning in virtual environments. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the Cybernetics Technology Division of the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2004). Personalized messages that promote science learning in virtual environments. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1), 165–173CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moshell, J. M., & Hughes, C. E. (1996). The virtual academy: A simulated environment for constructionist learning. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 8(1), 95–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moshell, J. M., & Hughes, C. E. (2002). Virtual environments as a tool for academic learning. In Stanney, K. (Ed.), Handbook of virtual environments, design, implementation and applications (pp. 893–910). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesGoogle Scholar
Neale, H. R., Brown, D. J., Cobb, S. V. G., & Wilson, J. R. (1999). Structured evaluation of virtual learning environments for special needs education. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 8(3), 264–282CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neale, H., Cobb, S., & Kerr, S. (2003, March). An inclusive design toolbox for development of educational virtual environments. Paper presented at Include 2003, Royal College of Art, London
Neale, H. R., Cobb, S. V. Kerr, S., & Leonard, A. (2002, September). Exploring the role of virtual environments in the special needs classroom. P. Sharkey, C. S. Lányi and P. Standen (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies (ICDVRAT) (pp. 259–266). Veszprem, Hungary
Parsons, S. (2001, September) Social conventions in virtual environments: Investigating understanding of personal space amongst people with autistic spectrum disorders. Workshop on Robotic and Virtual Interactive Systems in Autism Therapy, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, England
Parsons, S., Beardon, L., Neale, H. R., Reynard, G., Eastgate, R., Wilson, J. R., Cobb, S. V., Benford, S., Mitchell, P., & Hopkins, E. (2000, September). Development of social skills amongst adults with Asperger's Syndrome using virtual environments: The AS Interactive project. Proceedings of the International Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality, and Associated Technologies, Sardinia
Parsons, S., & Mitchell, P. (2001, April). Virtual reality and people with autistic spectrum disorders: Informal observations from the AS Interactive Project. Proceedings of the 12th Annual Durham International Conference on Autism
Parsons, S., & Mitchell, P. (2003). The potential of virtual reality in social skills training for people with autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 46(5), 430–443CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasqualotti, A., & Freitas, C. M. D. S. (2002). MAT – super (3D): A virtual reality modelling language environment for the teaching and learning of mathematics. Cyberpsychology and Behaviour, 5(5), 409–422CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Péruch, P., Vercher, J. L., & Gauthier, G. M. (1995). Acquisition of spatial knowledge through visual exploration of simulated environments. Ecological Psychology, 7(1), 1–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Péruch, P., Belingard, L., and Thinus-Blanc, C. (2000). Transfer of spatial knowledge from virtual to real environments. In Freksa, C., Brauer, W., Habel, C., & Wender, K. F. (Eds.), Spatial cognition II, LNAI 1849 (pp. 253–264). Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer-VerlagCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powers, D., & Darrow, M. (1994). Special education and virtual reality: Challenges and possibilities. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 27(1), 111–121CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pugnetti, L., Mendozzi, L., Attree, E. A., Barbieri, E., Brooks, B. M., Cazzulo, C. L., Motta, A., & Rose, F. D. (1998). Probing memory and executive functions with VR: Past and present studies. Cyberpsychology and Behaviour, 1, 151–162CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Regian, J. W., Shebilske, W. L., & Monk, J. M. (1992). Virtual reality: An instructional medium for visuo-spatial tasks. Journal of Communication, 4, 136–149CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riva, G., Wiederhold, B. K., & Molinari, E. (1998). Virtual environments in clinical psychology: Scientific and technological challenges in advanced patient-therapist interaction. Amsterdam: IOS PressGoogle Scholar
Rizzo, A., Buckwalter, J. G., Bowerly, T., Van Rooyen, A., McGee, J., Van der Zaag, C., Neumann, U., Thiebaux, M., Kim, L., & Chua, C. (2000, September). Virtual reality applications for the assessment and rehabilitation of attention and visuospatial cognitive processes: An update. In Sharkey, P., Cesarani, A., Pugnetti, L., & Rizzo, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality, and Associated Technology. Alghero, Sardinia, ItalyGoogle Scholar
Rizzo, A. A., Buckwalter, J. G., McGee, J. S., Bowerly, T., Zaag, C., Neumann, U., Thiebaux, M., Kim, L., Pair, J. & Chua, C. (2001). VEs for assessing and rehabilitating cognitive/functional performance. Presence, 10(4), 359–374CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rizzo, A. A., Buckwalter, J. G., and van der Zaag, C. (2002). Virtual environment applications in clinical neuropsychology. In Stanney, K. (Ed.), Virtual environment handbook. (pp. 1027–1064). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesGoogle Scholar
Rose, F. D., Brooks, B. M., & Attree, E. A. (2000, September). Virtual reality in vocational training of people with learning disabilities. The International Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies – ICDVRAT2000, Sassari, Sardinia, ItalyGoogle Scholar
Ruddle, R. A., & Jones, D. M. (2001). Manual and virtual rotation of a three-dimensional object. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7, 286–296Google ScholarPubMed
Ruddle, R. A., Payne, S. J., & Jones, D. M. (1997). Navigating buildings in desk-top virtual environments: Experimental investigations using extended navigational experience. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(2) 143–159Google Scholar
Ruddle, R. A., & Péruch, P. (2004). Effects of proprioceptive feedback and environmental characteristics on spatial learning in virtual environments. International Journal Human-Computer Studies, 60, 299–326CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutten, A., Cobb, S., Neale, H., Kerr, S., Leonard, A., Parsons, S., & Mitchell, P. (2003), The AS interactive project: Single-user and collaborative virtual environments for people with high-functioning autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Visualization and Computer Animation, 14, 233–241CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salzman, M. C., Dede, C., Bowen Loftin, R., & Chen, J. (1999). A model for how VR aids complex conceptual learning. Presence, 8(3), 293–316CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salzman, M. C., Dede, C., McGlynn, D., & Loftin, R. B. (1996). ScienceSpace: Lessons for designing immersive virtual realities. Proceedings of ACM CHI'96: ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Scaife, M., & Rogers, Y. (2001). Informing the design of a virtual environment to support learning in children. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 55, 115–143CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Standen, P. J., Brown, D. J., & Cromby, J. J. (2001). The effective use of VEs in the education and rehabilitation of students with intellectual disabilities. British Journal of Educational Technology, 32(3), 289–299CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Standen, P. J., & Low, H. L. (1996). Do virtual environments promote self-directed activity? A study of students with severe learning difficulties learning Makaton sign language. Sharkey, Paul M. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1st European Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies (pp. 123–129). Maidenhead, EnglandGoogle Scholar
Standen, P. J., Brown, D. J., Proctor, T., & Horan, M. (2002). How tutors assist adults with learning disabilities to use virtual environments. Disability and rehabilitation. 24, 11–12, pp. 570–577CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanton, D. (1997). Spatial cognition and virtual environments. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Leicester, England
Stanton, D., Foreman, N., & Wilson, P. N. (1998). Uses of virtual reality in training: Developing the spatial skills of children with mobility impairments. In Riva, G., Wiederhold, B. K. & Molinari, E. (Eds.), Virtual environments in clinical psychology: Scientific and technological challenges in advanced patient-therapist interaction. Vol. 58 (pp. 219–233). Amsterdam: IOS PressGoogle Scholar
Stanton, D., Foreman, N., Wilson, P., & Duffy, H. (2002). Use of virtual environments to acquire spatial understanding of real world multi-level environments. 4th International Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies 2002. pp. 13–19 Vesprem, Hungary
Stanton, D., Wilson, P., & Foreman, N. (1996, July). Using virtual reality environments to aid spatial awareness in disabled children. The 1st European Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies (pp. 93–101). Maidenhead, Berkshire, England
Stanton, D., Wilson, P., & Foreman, N. (2002). Effects of early mobility on shortcut performance in a simulated maze. Behavioural Brain Research, 136, 61–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanton, D., Wilson, P., and Foreman, N. (2003). Human shortcut performance in a computer-simulated maze: A comparative study. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 3, 315–329CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taxén, G., & Naeve, A. (2002). A system for exploring open issues in VR-based education. Computers and Graphics, 26, 593–598CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tlauka, M., & Wilson, P. N. (1994). The effect of landmarks on route-learning in a computer-simulated environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 14, 305–313CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trindade, J., Fiolhais, C., & Almeida, L. (2002). Science learning in virtual environments: A descriptive study. British Journal of Educational Technology, 33(4), 471–488CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waterworth, J. A., & Waterworth, E. L. (2000). Presence and absence in educational virtual reality: The role of perceptual seduction in conceptual learning. Themes in Education, 1(1), 7–38Google Scholar
Wickens, C., & Baker, P. (1995). Cognitive issues in virtual reality. In Barfield, W. and Furness, T. A. (Eds.), Virtual environments and advanced interface design (pp. 514–541). New York: Oxford University PressGoogle Scholar
Wiederhold, B. K., Wiederhold, M. D. (in press). Virtual healing: Human stories of success. San Diego: Interactive Media InstituteCrossRef
Williams, H. P., & Wickens, C. D. (1993). A comparison of methods for promoting geographic knowledge in simulated aircraft navigation. (Report No. ARL-93–9/NASA-93–3). Savoy, IL: Aviation Research LaboratoryGoogle Scholar
Wilson, J. R., Eastgate, R. M., & D'Cruz, M. (2002). Structured development of virtual environments. In Stanney, K. (Ed.), Virtual environment handbook, (pp. 353–378). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesGoogle Scholar
Wilson, P. N., Foreman, N., Gillett, R., and Stanton, D. (1997). Active versus passive processing of spatial information in a computer simulated environment. Ecological Psychology, 9(3), 207–222CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, P., Foreman, N., Stanton, D., & Duffy, H. (2004). Memory for targets in a multi-level simulated-environment: Evidence for vertical asymmetry in spatial memory. Memory and Cognition, 32(2), 283–297CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, P., Foreman, N., Stanton, D., and Duffy, H. (in press). Memory for targets in a multi-level simulated-environment: A comparison between able-bodied and physically disabled children. British Journal of PsychologyGoogle Scholar
Wilson, P. N., Foreman, N., & Stanton, D. (1997). Virtual reality, disability and rehabilitation. Disability and Rehabilitation, 19(6), 213–220CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, P. N., Foreman, N., & Tlauka, M. (1996). Transfer of spatial information from a virtual to a real environment in able-bodied adults and disabled children. Disability and Rehabilitation, 18(12), 633–637CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, P. N., Foreman, N., & Tlauka, M. (1997). Transfer of spatial information from a virtual to a real environment. Human Factors, 39, 526–531CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winn, W. (1993). A conceptual basis for educational applications of VR. (Technical Report TR 93–9). University of Washington
Winn, W. (1997, May). The impact of three-dimensional immersive virtual environments on modern pedagogy (HITL Technical Report R-97–15). Discussion paper for NSF workshop. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, Human Interface Technology Laboratory
Winn, W., Hoffman, H., Hollander, A., Osberg, K., Rose, H., and Char, P. (1999). Student-built VEs. Presence, 8(3), 283–292CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Witmer, B. G., Bailey, J. H., & Knerr, B. W. (1995). Training dismounted soldiers in virtual environments: Route learning and transfer. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social SciencesGoogle Scholar
Wollensak, A. (2002). Curricular modules: 3D and immersive visualization tools for learning. Computers and Graphics, 26, 599–602CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yair, Y., Mintz, R., & Litvak, S. (2001). 3D VR in science education: an implication for astronomy teaching. Journal Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 20(3), 293–305Google Scholar
Youngblut, C. (1998) Educational uses of virtual reality technology (Tech. Rep. No D-2128). Alexandria, VA: Institute for Defense Analysis

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×