Veterinarians are custodians of animal welfare, ensuring practices remain current and effective in the face of the ever-changing demands of the profession. Continuing Professional Development (CPD) is essential for protecting animal welfare, however access to quality CPD is a challenge in many countries. India has one of the fastest growing veterinary industries globally, emphasising the importance of accessible CPD opportunities that are relevant to this setting. This study used focus groups to explore how Indian veterinarians identify relevant CPD, barriers they encounter, and their experiences with CPD. We describe three themes: (1) ‘career vs calling’, where veterinarians’ extrinsic and intrinsic motivational factors were identified, such as their desire to protect animal welfare; (2) being ‘willing to learn but can’t’, with context-specific barriers, such as accessing reliable CPD information; and (3) ‘real interactions matter’, where participants described how pedagogical design influenced their choices, e.g. being able to observe animal welfare improvements through practical teaching. We have three recommendations: firstly, to improve CPD learning opportunities informed by evidence-based methods, to meet knowledge and skills gaps such as the high demand for practically focused training; secondly, the development of a unified accreditation and quality assurance framework to assess content, relevance and delivery standards of available CPD options to veterinarians; and, lastly, improved support from employers to address current barriers and facilitate attendance. These findings contribute to the current knowledge gap of factors that influence Indian veterinarians’ experiences of attaining relevant, accessible CPD and makes suggestions to improve standards of veterinary care and, ultimately, patient welfare.

In the UK and the Republic of Ireland, Official Veterinarians (OVs) are employed by the Food Standards Agency and the Food Safety Authority, respectively, as legal authorities for both animal welfare and food safety. However, little is known about job satisfaction in this profession which has the potential to impact professionals’ well-being and performance. Moreover, despite animal welfare issues being a reality that OVs witness, we do not yet understand how OVs perceive these issues at slaughter or whether this impacts job satisfaction. We assessed OVs’ perceptions on job satisfaction and views on welfare at slaughter across the UK and ROI, through an online questionnaire with 113 participants, which included socio-demographic information of participants and questions or statements about different aspects of job satisfaction and animal welfare issues at slaughter. While most OVs committed to their work they reported issues that may compromise job satisfaction, such as often experiencing loneliness at work, threatening situations and sleep disorders. Moreover, job satisfaction was often impacted by animal welfare incidents, and conflicts with food business operators were considered one of the greatest barriers to improving welfare at slaughter. There is also the likelihood of professionals’ individual ethical values being challenged since OVs are virtually certain to witness religious slaughter yet disagree with this practice to the extent that they consider it should be banned. We reveal significant challenges associated with the role of OV that justify creation of a support network to assist and safeguard this profession, as well as animal welfare at slaughter.

Organisations for which sentient animals are central to the business model need to demonstrate the safeguarding of animal welfare and well-being. This requires providing positive experiences for animals which is critical to maintaining the social licence to operate. A cross-sectional survey captured the attitudes of experienced horse sector participants regarding sentience, welfare and well-being. Almost all respondents (99.9%; n = 676/677), believed horses were sentient. Analysis of open-ended responses identified two themes: (1) Sentience is a pathway to understanding the mental state, welfare and well-being of horses; and (2) A moral obligation for humans to consider sentience. Respondents’ observations that horses reacted to stimuli and responded to their surroundings underpinned their belief that horses were sentient. Theme one related to respondents’ understanding of sentience and how sentience informed their interpretations of horse behaviours and the making of inferences regarding the equine mental state. Theme two related to a moral obligation believed to exist towards horses because humans manage the horses’ environment and need to consider the impact of their interactions with horses. These obligations were perceived as responsibilities to consider sentience when determining good welfare and well-being in horse activity settings, when interacting with horses and when training and competing with horses. The results suggested a sophisticated understanding of sentience existed among experienced horse sector participants, who recognised the sentient horse as worthy of care. We propose that leveraging experienced participants’ existing knowledge of sentience could support the implementation of the Five Domains model when updating organisational policies.

Pens for farmed mink (Neogale vison) commonly include separate nesting areas to provide privacy and warmth in the perinatal period. However, standard bedding materials may not be sufficient to allow intrinsically motivated nest-building behaviours in dams. Further, these materials may not produce optimal nest structures for the rearing of kits. In the present study, we provided extra, relatively high-quality nest-building materials and a chewable sisal rope enrichment for mink dams in the perinatal period (a group enriched at whelping; EW). The effects of these enrichments on various measures of welfare and maternal behaviour were compared to those of mink dams in standard housing (SH) and mink dams whose kits were enriched later in development (EK). EW dams performed less stereotypic behaviour and built higher quality nests than dams of other housing conditions, although dams’ basal faecal cortisol metabolite levels (FCM) were not affected. The stress responsiveness of these dams’ offspring was later assessed by sampling FCM before and after a handling event, however, this event did not appear to induce a measurable stress response and thus no conclusions could be drawn regarding effects of perinatal enrichment on HPA-axis development. Overall, provision of higher quality nest-building materials and a chewable rope enrichment benefited dam stereotypic behaviour and nest building in the perinatal period. We present suggestions for future studies to further investigate whether perinatal enrichment can impact maternal care and offspring HPA-axis development in mink.

The modern idea of purebred dogs has come under increasing critical scrutiny over recent decades. In light of this critical focus and other developments in society, some new trends in how companion dogs are bred and acquired have emerged. This means a diminishing influence from traditional kennel clubs with more dogs being sold without a pedigree, stricter legal restrictions on dog breeding, growing popularity of deliberate crosses of established breeds (i.e. so-called designer breeds) and growing hype around the benefits of mixed-breed dogs. We give an overview of these trends and discuss to what extent they will serve to promote dogs that are innately healthy, have good welfare and function well in their various roles in today’s world. We argue that newly invented designer breeds and mixed breeds also have worrying health and behavioural problems, and that the predictability of purebred dogs with respect to body size, basic behaviours, known need for grooming, disorder profiles and other attributes may well offer some benefits for a satisfying human-dog relationship seen from both sides. The optimal future seems to lie in the middle ground, where the future organised dog world (i.e. kennel and breed clubs or their successor organisations) will need to re-open the breed registries, remove wording from breed standards that currently promotes extreme conformation, support selection against disease-predisposing genotypes and phenotypes and refocus dog showing and breeding to promote health and appropriate behaviour.

A single manipulable enrichment is often introduced to the pens of farmed American mink (Neogale vison) to combat stereotypic behaviour and behaviours or temperaments associated with poor welfare (e.g. inactivity, fear, and aggression). This enrichment is provided early in life, but it is unclear the age at which enrichment is most effective at preventing stereotypic behaviour and ameliorating welfare. Here, a group of enriched kits (EK) were provided with multiple enrichments that were periodically exchanged to renew novelty from 4–15 weeks of age, earlier than typical enrichment provision on farms, after which they were housed with a single standard enrichment into adulthood. The effects of EK enrichment on kit behaviours and long-term stereotypic behaviour were compared to that of two groups reared with a single standard enrichment (standard housed; SH and enriched at whelping; EW). Inactivity in the nest-box was decreased in EK kits as juveniles relative to other groups, however, social play was reduced and lying awake was increased compared to EW and SH juveniles, respectively. Stereotypic behaviour in the kits as adults was not prevented by EK interventions; in fact, EK kits may have developed more diverse sub-types of stereotypic behaviour than EW and SH kits. Moreover, kit temperament did not appear to be affected. EK enrichment may have been ineffective in improving welfare due to the timing of its removal or potential frustration induced by its removal. Recommendations are provided for future research regarding critical periods of enrichment to improve welfare in species such as farmed mink.

Working animals have a crucial socio-economic role to play for many low-income communities. One such example is in Ethiopia where virtually all the draught power for agricultural production derives from working animals. However, despite this, the welfare status of working animals in this country remains poor. Hence, a clear understanding of the major welfare problems faced by working animals is key to helping improve their welfare status and to maximise their economic contribution. This systematic literature review encompasses 28 studies published between 2010–2024, that address the role of working animals and the factors impinging on their welfare. Suitability of papers for inclusion (and exclusion) involved use of a PRISMA flow diagram. In this review, we also sought to define the exact role of working animals with them found to be used not only for draught power but also as a direct source of food as well as income. A lack of medical care was also highlighted with animals afforded limited access to feed and water, subjected to regular physical abuse, and deprived of access to shelter. Insufficient assessment of welfare and improper methods of data analysis were also found to be an issue, factors that require to be addressed by future researchers to help improve the welfare of working animals in this region

There is limited research into horse slaughter, particularly ante mortem welfare, and the effectiveness of captive-bolt gun (CBG) stunning, despite this being a widely used method worldwide. To address this evidence gap and explore associations between ante and post mortem factors, the welfare of 62 horses was assessed at a commercial Italian abattoir. Animal-based measures were used to identify stress-related behaviours and stunning effectiveness. A sub-sample (44%; 27/62) of heads were assessed for gross brain pathology. All animals in the study showed stress-related behaviours at all stages of the slaughter process. Additionally, 53% (33/62) of horses slipped in the stunning box, with poor floor surface condition and use of force associated with this. At least one sign of an ineffective stun was observed in 22% (14/62) of animals. Six animals were shot twice, with the application of a second shot significantly associated with a higher stress behaviour index score in the stunning box. Damage to critical brainstem structures was found in 85% (23/27) of heads that were assessed with gross pathology. An absence of damage to critical brainstem structures meant that animals were ten times more likely to show signs of ineffective stunning. These results highlight the risks to equine welfare throughout the slaughter process and suggest that mitigating ante mortem stress could improve stunning effectiveness, whilst CBG usage should be refined to ensure that critical brainstem structures are targeted.

Globally, Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens) continue to be sold and kept in small, barren jars or tanks, with little concern for their welfare. This study aimed to examine the impact of housing size and furnishings (i.e. live plants, refuges) on the behaviour of Siamese fighting fish, to understand optimal tank conditions. Thirteen male Siamese fighting fish were rotated between five different housing conditions: ‘jar’ (1.5 L); ‘small’ (3.3 L); ‘medium’ (5.6 L); ‘large’ (19.3 L); and ‘large-barren’ (19.3 L). All tanks had gravel and furnishings, except the large-barren tank which was devoid of these. Overall, tank size influenced behaviour. Fish were significantly more active and spent significantly less time resting and performing ‘abnormal’ behaviours (hovering and stereotypic swimming), in the large tank compared to the smaller tanks. Tank furnishings also influenced behaviour. Fishes in the large-barren tank performed more ‘abnormal’ behaviours (hovering, stereotypic swimming, interaction with the walls), compared to the large tank which had furnishings. These results suggest that the small, barren jars and tanks that Siamese fighting fish are often housed in are detrimental to their welfare, and larger, furnished tanks are more optimal. Behavioural variations were observed between the fish in this study, highlighting individual fish personality. We recommend a minimum tank size of 5.6 L for the display and sale of Siamese fighting fish, and tanks larger than this for keeping Siamese fighting fish at home. All tanks should contain gravel, live plants and refuges.

Animal agriculture employs approximately one-eighth of world’s human population and results in the slaughter of over 160 billion animals annually, representing perhaps the most extensive intertwining of human and animal lives on the planet. In principle, close, intersubjective relationships (involving shared attention and mental states) between humans and the animals in agriculture are possible, though these are infrequently studied and are unlikely to be achieved in farming, given systemic constraints (e.g. housing and management). Much scientific research on human-animal relationships within agriculture has focused upon a fairly restricted range of states (e.g. reducing aversive human-animal interactions within standard systems, toward improving productivity and reducing injuries to workers). Considering human-animal relations along a continuum, we review scholarship supporting the rationale for expanding the range of relationships under consideration in animal welfare research, given the impacts these relationships can have on both animals and stockpersons, increasing consumer demand for humane food products, and the goal of providing animals under our care with good lives. Looking toward traditions that encourage taking the perspective of, and learning from non-humans, we provide entry points to approaches that can enable animal welfare research to expand to investigate a broader range of human-animal relationship states. By showing the potential for close mutually beneficial human-animal relationships, this line of research highlights pathways for understanding and improving the welfare of animals used in agriculture.

US and Canadian caregivers (n = 6,529) of two domestic cats (Felis catus) were recruited to participate in an online cross-sectional questionnaire to assess: (1) knowledge of inter-cat behaviour; (2) the frequency of positive and negative cat-cat interactions in the home; and (3) factors associated with positive and negative cat-cat interactions in the home. The questionnaire included ten videos (five negatively valenced, five positively valenced), in which participants scored: the overall cat-cat interaction; cat 1’s experience; and cat 2’s experience, using a Likert scale. Participants were also asked to report how often they see each interaction in their own two cats. Cat behaviour experts (n = 5) were recruited to rate their interpretations of the videos using the same Likert scale as the cat caregiver participants. Overall, our results suggest that overt positive interactions (allo-grooming, co-sleeping) were more likely reported if cat dyads were related or spent more time living together, were neutered males, indoor-only, and/or had a single feeding area. Overt negative interactions (fighting, striking) were more likely reported if dyads were older or had a larger age gap, showed animal-directed aggression, were declawed, and/or had a single litter-box. Participant versus expert ratings of the videos were similar, however caregivers reported certain affiliative behaviours more positively than experts. Caregivers appeared to have a good understanding of their cats’ overall relationship, as this aligned with reported cat-cat interactions. These results increase our understanding of the cat-cat relationship in two-cat households, which may be used to inform cat adoption strategies, in-home management, and promote a positive cat-cat relationship.

Tourism wildlife interactions are controversial, the debate hinging largely on the compromised welfare of the animals used. Despite this, lion cub (Panthera leo) interactions are popular, and there is a need to understand what motivates interactors to participate in the activity, their perceptions and expectations. We surveyed the attitudes of 300 visitors to three lion cub interaction facilities in South Africa. Whilst 38% of interactors were aware of the controversy around lion cub interactions, 69% desired the experience regardless. It is widely assumed that lion cub interaction opportunities are big attractions, yet 74% of respondents said that they would still have visited if lion cub interactions were not offered. Whilst 84% of interactors felt that their expectations were met, 61% said that the interaction had no impact on them. Several of those interviewed interacted with multiple species, and 34% determined that their favourite engagement was with animals that interacted back voluntarily. Most of those interviewed chose the interaction for their children (69%). Whilst 58% felt the experience was educational, only 2% of these had learnt about the plight of lions in the wild. When asked to reflect on the welfare of the lion cubs they had interacted with, ‘Freedom from discomfort’ was seen as the most important factor, as well as ‘Freedom to express natural behaviour’. Interactions were viewed with a variety of emotions and generated a range of beliefs. We conclude that the findings can be used by facilities to better prepare visitors for the experience, ensuring that interaction animals are better able to serve in their role as ambassador representatives.

Separation-related behaviours (SRBs) in dogs (Canis familiaris) often indicate poor welfare. Understanding SRB risk factors can aid prevention strategies. We investigated whether early-life experiences and dog-owner interactions affect SRB development. Using a longitudinal study, we conducted exploratory analyses of associations between potential risk factors and SRB occurrence in six month old puppies (n = 145). Dogs were less likely to develop SRBs if owners reported that, at ≤ 16 weeks old, puppies were restricted to crates/rooms overnight and had ≥ 9 h of sleep per night. Puppies with poor house-training at ≤ 16 weeks were more likely to show SRBs, as were those trained using dog treats or novel kibble versus other rewards. Puppies whose owners used more punishment/aversive techniques when responding to ‘bad’ behaviour had increased odds of SRBs at six months versus other puppies. Puppies whose owners reported ‘fussing’ over their dogs at six months in response to ‘bad’ behaviour upon their return, versus those whose owners responded in other ways, were six times more likely to display SRBs. Other factors, including dog breed, sex and source, showed no significant association with SRB occurrence. Thus, SRB development might be prevented by enabling sleep for ≥ 9 h in early life, providing enclosed space overnight, refraining from aversive training of puppies generally, and avoiding fussing over puppies in response to unwanted behaviour following separation. These recommendations derive from correlational longitudinal study results, so analysis of interventional data is required for confirmation regarding effective prevention strategies.

As a free-ranging, social species, the housing of horses (Equus caballus) may limit their opportunity to display natural behaviour, compromising well-being. This review records and presents studies that have investigated horse housing design, evaluates the location and number of studies carried out to date, and reports the methods used to assess impact on equine well-being. A Boolean search was conducted in two databases: Web of Science and Scopus, filtered according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol, resulting in 60 peer-reviewed papers for evaluation. Key findings are that a significant amount of work to date has been carried out in Europe and the USA, and the frequency of horse housing studies has steadily increased over the last 33 years, with 52% of them occurring in the last eight years. Health and welfare measures indicate benefits of housing horses in more natural management systems, particularly with conspecifics. Generally, the studies reviewed were only conducted in the short term, therefore future research should aim to increase the length of time over which housing is evaluated, particularly to ensure studies continue beyond an adaptation period. The review also highlights a requirement for more standardised methodology in housing welfare evaluation to allow for more meaningful comparisons to be made. Studies seeking to improve horse welfare in existing housing systems, in the face of limited space or other management constraints, are of high value to the end user and are encouraged. The studies reviewed here represent a significant and diverse body of work from which gaps in knowledge and future research directions can be determined.

Environmental enrichment programmes are widely used to improve welfare of captive and laboratory animals, especially non-human primates. Monitoring enrichment use over time is crucial, as animals may habituate and reduce their interaction with it. In this study we aimed to monitor the interaction with enrichment items in groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), each consisting of an average of ten individuals, living in a breeding colony. To streamline the time-intensive task of assessing enrichment programmes we automated the evaluation process by using machine learning technologies. We built two computer vision-based pipelines to evaluate monkeys’ interactions with different enrichment items: a white drum containing raisins and a non-food-based puzzle. The first pipeline analyses the usage of enrichment items in nine groups, both when it contains food and when it is empty. The second pipeline counts the number of monkeys interacting with a puzzle across twelve groups. The data derived from the two pipelines reveal that the macaques consistently express interest in the food-based white drum enrichment, even several months after its introduction. The puzzle enrichment was monitored for one month, showing a gradual decline in interaction over time. These pipelines are valuable for assessing enrichment by minimising the time spent on animal observation and data analysis; this study demonstrates that automated methods can consistently monitor macaque engagement with enrichments, systematically tracking habituation responses and long-term effectiveness. Such advancements have significant implications for enhancing animal welfare, enabling the discontinuation of ineffective enrichments and the adaptation of enrichment plans to meet the animals’ needs.

Parrots are popular companion animals but show prevalent and at times severe welfare issues. Nonetheless, there are no scientific tools available to assess parrot welfare. The aim of this systematic review was to identify valid and feasible outcome measures that could be used as welfare indicators for companion parrots. From 1,848 peer-reviewed studies retrieved, 98 met our inclusion and exclusion criteria (e.g. experimental studies, captive parrots). For each outcome collected, validity was assessed based on the statistical significance reported by the authors, as other validity parameters were rarely provided for evaluation. Feasibility was assigned by considering the need for specific instruments, veterinary-level expertise or handling the parrot. A total of 1,512 outcomes were evaluated, of which 572 had a significant P-value and were considered feasible. These included changes in behaviour (e.g. activity level, social interactions, exploration), body measurements (e.g. body weight, plumage condition) and abnormal behaviours, amongst others. Many physical and physiological parameters were identified that either require experimental validation, or veterinary-level skills and expertise, limiting their potential use by parrot owners themselves. Moreover, a high risk of bias undermined the internal validity of these outcomes, while a strong taxonomic bias, a predominance of studies on parrots in laboratories, and an underrepresentation of companion parrots jeopardised their external validity. These results provide a promising starting point for validating a set of welfare indicators in parrots.

The successful survival of crocodilian hatchlings is largely dependent upon nest care by females. Nonetheless, it is crucial to understand how environmental degradation affects nest site selection and parental behaviour in female crocodilians. Therefore, our objective was to evaluate the relationship between anthropogenic disturbances and nesting behaviour in free-living broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris). We compared nests in a disturbed and a non-disturbed area, and anticipated differences in nest density, hatching success, female size, egg number and biomass, and parental care behaviour. We monitored 44 nests over four years in Brazil, covering 58.25 km, in a disturbed area (n = 8) and a non-disturbed area (n = 36). According to our findings, nest density was significantly higher in the non-disturbed area (1.31 nests per linear km) compared to the disturbed area (0.25 nests per linear km). However, there was a significantly higher frequency of parental care behaviour (86%) in the disturbed area compared to the non-disturbed area (34%). The other factors studied showed no statistical difference between the two areas. The results indicate that females prefer to nest in healthier, preserved environments, away from anthropogenic disturbances. Yet, presumably at the cost of extra energy expenditure, increased parental care appears to buffer against a reduction in hatching success. Despite the behavioural buffer, the clear preference for non-disturbed nesting and nursery locations underscores the need to identify and protect the remaining non-disturbed areas inhabited by these animals. Our findings suggest that these measures should positively impact the welfare and protection of C. latirostris and other crocodilian species.

Decapod crustaceans, commonly utilised for pure or applied scientific research and commercial food production, have generally remained outside ethical debate. However, in the last decade many parts of the world have seen an increase in public interest in the welfare of decapod crustaceans and statutory legal protection has been introduced in several countries. Although still limited to a small number of countries and remaining relatively unharmonised, relevant legislation could be increasingly broadened to include decapods in further jurisdictions. Much existing legislation, originally intended for protecting terrestrial vertebrates during scientific study, might be unsuitable for aquatic invertebrates such as decapods. Indeed, precedence with many fish species and cephalopods suggests detail is lacking with respect to fundamental guidance. Therefore, similar inclusion of decapods into such legislation could make welfare or scientific goals more challenging to achieve unless relevant guidance is available, particularly to animal care practitioners. This horizon paper aims to summarise existing decapod legislation, and the considerations required should decapods be included in current conceptual frameworks and scientific legislation.

Parrots (Psittaciformes) are widely kept in captivity, yet their welfare is under-researched in comparison to other captive species. This study aimed to determine key welfare issues affecting parrots through a modified Delphi approach. Twenty-eight welfare issues were first compiled via a preliminary literature review. Parrot welfare experts and sector professionals (n = 26) were then recruited to participate in an online survey to rank the identified welfare issues on a six-point scale according to severity, duration and prevalence of each issue. Participants could provide commentary on their ranking and propose additional welfare issues of concern. Items with a mean score of 4 or above progressed to a second survey, where participants (n = 14) indicated whether they agreed or disagreed with the current ranking of the welfare issue. Finally, two online workshops were held, where participants (n = 7) discussed the rankings from the second survey and sought to establish a consensus on the top ten welfare issues in each category and overall. Six of the seven final participants agreed with the final rankings, achieving a consensus rate of 86%. The top welfare issues overall were lack of owner knowledge and support; social isolation; housing; environmental opportunity to express behaviours; nutrition; development of normal behaviour; lack of a ‘life plan’ for birds; abnormal behaviours; lack of parrot-specific veterinary training; and insufficient application and enforcement of legislation. It is hoped that identification and recognition of these priority areas will be useful in directing future efforts in research, owner and veterinary education, and policy initiatives to improve parrot welfare.

Finding effective ways to monitor laying hen welfare is challenging as UK flock sizes can reach 16,000 birds. Eggs provide potential for welfare monitoring, as they are a daily output with previous evidence of links to stress. We explored the associations between stressors and eggs using two complementary studies. In Study 1, hens experienced social or heat stressors and eggs were scored daily for defects in shell characteristics. All eggs were scored on a three-point scale: 1 (no defect); 2 (minor defects); or 3 (unsuitable for whole egg sale in the UK). Texture defects were higher after stress treatments and were explored further as a promising proxy measure of welfare. In Study 2, eggshell texture from five commercial flocks was scored before versus at the onset of an avian influenza-enforced indoor housing, and scores were correlated with industry data for egg quality. Eggs were more likely to have texture defects after the enforced indoor housing, and manually scored texture correlated significantly with shell strength and shell colour during automated grading. Shell strength was weaker immediately after the enforced indoor housing and eggs were darker. We suggest that eggshell texture could be a useful addition to assessing changes or stresses in a hen’s environment for both research and commercial purposes, but further validation is needed to understand the generalisability of these results to other stressors. Additionally, data already collected in factories, such as shell strength and colour, may provide information on stress and could be valorised for understanding hen welfare.