This chapter returns to the question: What can we learn from history? Drawing not only on C. Vann Woodward but also on insights of Reinhold Niebuhr, Garry Wills, and Abraham Lincoln, among others, suggests that the irony of history alerts us to the folly of ignoring inconvenient history. History, at its best, should give us a keen awareness of the irony embedded in the human experience, and, as it does, it should temper our pride even when showing mercy and our zeal even when seeking justice.

Given the centrality of counterfactual difference-making relations to the argument of the book, in Chapter 7 we say a few more things about contrary-to-fact conditionals. We offer a primer on the logic and the semantics of counterfactuals, focusing on the two main schools of thought: the metalinguistic and the possible-worlds approach. We also present and examine James Woodward’s interventionist counterfactuals and the Rubin-Holland model. We argue that the counterfactual approach is more basic than the mechanistic, but information about mechanisms can help sort out some of the methodological problems faced by the counterfactual account.