This chapter explores the background to the American War, deeply rooted in Vietnam’s own past. The historical experience of the Vietnamese with outside invasion produced over time a national myth of indomitability even as regional and other identities remained fractured. Internecine and fratricidal violence were hallmarks of premodern Vietnamese history. French colonial rule in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries influenced the distinct self-images of the Vietnamese and exacerbated social, ethnic, sectarian, and regional cleavages. The suffering and humiliation, personal as well as national, endured under French domination inspired emergent patriotic sentiments. Eventually, Marxism–Leninism became popular as an ideology explaining the Vietnamese condition and offering a blueprint for reclaiming national dignity. It informed understandings of the French presence in Vietnam and, subsequently, the Japanese occupation of Indochina in World War II. The chapter concludes with a fresh interpretation of the communist-led August Revolution of 1945, which spawned a Vietnamese civil war lasting thirty years.

The identity of the Japanese Constitution of 1946 is defined by the unusual story of its making process. This constitution was already born with both internal and external disharmony. The new constitution fundamentally changed the former constitution of the Meiji regime; however, it did not replace the former imperial constitution but revised it by using its amendment clause. The continuity between the former and latter regimes was disconnected in a substantive sense but maintained in a procedural sense. This is the internal disharmony. This twisted legal inconsistency can often arise in hard times after losing a war, but it was of grave concern to Japanese legal scholars who tried to justify such legalistic chaos as the “August Revolution.” Nevertheless, it was not the new constitution itself that brought about the revolutionary impact, but the Potsdam Declaration as a condition of surrender imposed by the Allied Forces on the Japanese Government. The Constitution of Japan was not unjustly imposed by the Allied Forces but was legitimately imposed by the Potsdam Declaration, which the Japanese Government itself accepted upon its defeat in the war. More precisely, it is a constitution based on an imposed revolution. This is the external disharmony.

This chapter presents a novel interpretation of the August General Uprising of 1945, often known as the "August Revolution," its precursors, and its immediate impacts. The dominant interpretation of this "revolution" emphasizes the leading role of the Indochinese Communist Party at the head of the Viet Minh and sees the northern "model" of uprising established in Hanoi as the template for the "revolution" as a whole. The South, and Saigon in particular, ill fit this model. The chapter discusses the precursor to the August Uprisings: the slow collapse of the economy, the Japanese overthrow of the French regime on March 9, 1945, the end of World War II, and the surrender of the Japanese in August 1945. At this point, Instead, multiple actors, including communists (both "Stalinists" and Trotskyists), nationalists, and religious groups like the Cao Dai and the Buddhist Hoa Hao, engaged in parallel but intersecting mobilizations to seize power, which ultimately occurred under the Viet Minh banner. The chapter discusses the rampant violence under no centralized control, the arrival of the British forces temporarily occupying the city under the Allies, the French arrival in September, and the Vietnamese declaration of Resistance War in September 1945.