The reign of the caliph al-Qadir signals the rediscovery of Abbasid religious authority on the basis of new terms. The Buyid--Abbasid rivalry with the Fatimids of Egypt provides an opportunity for shared interests between the caliph and the Buyids. The drafting of the Qadiri Creed in Baghdad outlines elements of Sunni belief that become official doctrine and provide a rebuttal of Fatimid ideology. The rise in the caliph's position as a religious arbiter, and the alignment of al-Qadir and al-Qa'im with a prolific class of 'ulama and jurists, such as al-Mawardi, attracts distant support from the newly rising Ghaznavids and the Seljuks. The Seljuk entry to Baghdad in 1055 brings about a new formula of affinity between caliphs and sultans. Continued Abbasid attempts for a reassertion of authority finally succeed in the caliphate of al-Nasir, who is helped by an international situation that ends the last vestiges of Seljuk political influence. The Mongols, under Genghis Khan, dominate the Iranian world but stop short of invading Baghdad. Al-Nasir's interest in Sufism and the Futuwwa movement incorporates a new dimension in Abbasid religious authority, while the rising tide of conquests against the Crusades further strengthens the caliphate's image as a central religious authority in the Islamic world.

The intellectual biographies of the scholars presented in this chapter – Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792), Shah Waliullah Dihlawi (1703–1762), Shaykh Da’ud al-Fatani (1769–1847), ‘Abd al-Nasir al-Qursawi (1776–1812), Ma Laichi (?1681–1766), and Ma Mingxin (?1719?–1781) – lead us through an exploration of how mysticism and legal approaches to Islamic practice took shape not as mutually exclusive but rather as intertwined dynamics, highlighting a dual track of reformism and Sufism concerned with “proper” ritual, a return to the scriptures, and a rejection of bid’a, often manifested as the absorption of local traditions into Islamic practices. The specific focus on the Naqshbandiyah additionally allows us to center these dynamics in Asia, as this Central Asian order spread to the Indian subcontinent and influenced developments in China and Southeast Asia, ultimately bringing Asia center-stage when exploring scholars’ concerns (and interventions) about “deviation” and “orthodoxy”. Without denying the crucial role played by Mecca and Medina as gathering places for scholars coming from all corners of the world, this chapter has taken into consideration alternative routes and networks of religious learning that connected the umma across geographical boundaries.