Confucianism and Women is reminiscent of Dorothy Ko's two thought-provoking monographs, Teachers of the Inner Chambers (1994) and Cinderella's Sisters (2005). In the former, Ko scrutinised meticulously the two dichotomies of yin-yang (female-male) and nei-wai (inner-outer), which offer alternative ways of looking at the Chinese gender issues. In the latter, she alerted the reader to a “modern nationalist bias” when scholars address the issue of Chinese footbinding. Scholars, for example, often fail to perceive the footbinding issue within the context of Chinese cultural tradition. By the same token, Li-Hsiang Rosenlee strives to seek answers to certain questions posed in her insightful book, such as, is Confucianism inherently sexist? Can western feminism be adopted in the Chinese cultural context? Is it possible to reconcile Confucianism and feminism, and in turn develop a new terminology of ‘Confucian feminism’ in future? In addition to adopting a philosophical approach to these questions, Rosenlee is eager to rethink Chinese women's issues from within the Confucian cultural tradition.
The book has seven chapters. In Chapter 1, Rosenlee is successful in drawing attention to the book's various objectives. The first is to identify the intellectual tradition of Confucianism, which is often perceived as ambiguous and complex. The second is to demonstrate the cultural conceptual schemes in the Confucian world, which are conducive to the construction of gender in the Chinese context. Third, the book is to probe into some possible interconnections between the Chinese gender system and Confucianism, where Confucian ethics help sustain the patrilineal family structure in Chinese society. Fourth, the book tries to offer another way of viewing women as participants in transmitting sexist practices that conform to Chinese cultural ideals. The final objective is to suggest Confucianism as a potential viable resource for the liberation of Chinese women. These objectives are clearly outlined in the introductory chapter, preparing readers for what they may expect in the remainder of the book.
Chapter 2 seeks to address the origins of Confucianism. For Rosenlee, the term ‘Confucianism’ is a Jesuit ‘invention’ (p. 17) but not a singular doctrine centring on the thoughts of Confucius. To argue for the ambiguous and mysterious origins of Ru (Confucianism), she satisfactorily presents Ru before the influence of Confucius and its relations with the Chinese state through the Qing. Rosenlee does agree with the view that ren (person) is central to the teaching of Confucius; nevertheless, she reiterates that ren is ‘gender neutral’ (p. 36) and does not differentiate between men and women. The main points in this chapter are that ren is an ethical category; that the virtue-based personhood is relational and is open to both genders; and that reciprocity underlies the basic structure of human relations.
Chapter 3 alerts the reader to the problematic yin-yang metaphor when being viewed through the western lens of femininity and masculinity. According to Rosenlee, the western concept of gender is a kinship-neutral term, whereas the Chinese one is coextensive with familial and societal roles. Equally convincing, she points out that the yin-yang metaphor is not based on gender per se; one can be yin and yang simultaneously depending on one's social roles and places in relation with others. Therefore, the main argument in this chapter is that the yin-yang metaphor is a ‘complementary’ and a ‘cross-gender’ concept (p. 50).
Rosenlee then moves her fascinating discussion of the dichotomy of nei-wai to Chapter 4. As with the yin-yang metaphor, the nei-wai binary is a correlative and relational binary whose boundaries change with context. It is a spatial, cultural boundary separating the neighbouring barbarians from the civilised Hans. The nei-wai distinction is also a “functional distinction” (p. 93) that defines the two gender spheres and the normative gender division of labour. For example, women belong to the narrow realm of nei, while men occupy the broader realm of wai. Women's roles as daughter, wife, and mother are the focused centre, the foundation upon which the wai is based.
A question hence arises: are women submissive, oppressed, and illiterate? In Chapter 5, Rosenlee challenges this question by skilfully narrating the literary representations of virtuous women as seen through certain didactic texts for women. Biographies of Exemplary Women and Four Books for Women are cases in point. A traditional assumption made in feminist writings is that the womanly sphere of nei is marginal, yet these didactic texts for women prove the opposite. Of paramount importance is the case of Ban Zhao in Han China. The ritual boundaries between the nei and the wai are subject to negotiation. Ban Zhao's involvement in both literature and politics was “justified through an extension of her gender roles in the realm of nei” (p. 116) as a filial daughter and a chaste widow. However, as Rosenlee concludes in this chapter, the disparity between the nei and the wai also implies gender disparity between men and women. Women's literary talent has no legitimacy; it is outside the realm of traditional Chinese culture.
Chapter 6 focuses on Confucianism and Chinese sexist practices. In this chapter, Rosenlee systematically demonstrates that Confucian familial ethics serve as a foundation for “justifying the social abuse of women” (p. 122). First, female infanticide shows that only boys are worth keeping because boys help perpetuate the family name. Second, concubinage appears because of the failure of a wife to produce a male heir, which is socially unacceptable in Chinese society. Third, a child bride is taken to ensure her service and filial devotion to her future in-laws. Rosenlee, however, convincingly argues that equating Confucianism with sexism can lead one to draw dangerous conclusions. As a few statements in the philosophy of Confucius suggest that he thought it better to deny women's education, some people disregard the constructive aspects of Confucianism. The danger is that the whole value of a philosophy (Confucianism) will be negated based on a few statements made by the philosopher (Confucius).
Accordingly, Chapter 7 suggests using ‘Confucian feminism’ as an alternative future project. Rosenlee outlines some basic assumptions of this alternative project. First, a relational self is situated in a complex web of relations. Without locating oneself in social relations, one is not fully personed. Second, the achievement of one's personhood is through the cultivation of the virtue of ren. Third, each social relation is reciprocal and complementary. Rosenlee then puts forward her argument by saying that “a social inequality changes over the course of one's lifetime” (p. 158). In this connection, one is neither socially inferior nor superior. Confucian feminism tolerates a “qualified inequality” that is based on “ability and moral authority instead of gender per se” (p. 158).
Rosenlee would have been more successful in convincing the reader if she had addressed certain queries in Chapter 7. Is the western term ‘feminism’ appropriate for use in the Confucian context? Feminism defends the rights of women but not both genders. Readers may expect to have a crystal clear definition of ‘Confucian feminism’ before the term is adopted. Alternatively, is ‘Confucian equality’ an improvement on the term ‘Confucian feminism’? In Chapter 7, Rosenlee discusses the dichotomies of superiority-inferiority and of equality-inequality. A paradox then arises as to whether she tries to propose the idea of ‘the rights of women’ or the idea of ‘gender equality’. Furthermore, is ‘Confucian feminism’ relevant to contemporary China when the one-child family policy is implemented? One assumption of her future project is that a self is located in a web of family relations. This web appears to be ineffective in a small-size family. These queries notwithstanding, Confucianism and Women is a concisely presented and coherently structured piece of writing. It is a welcome addition to the current research in the fields of Chinese gender studies and philosophy.
