What does it mean to observe something? Is it simply the act of looking at an object, or is it a more complex process that aims to understand the object's meaning in a specialized way? What kinds of analytical activity are associated with these observational practices and does imagery play an essential role in this framework? In her book Visible Empire, Daniela Bleichmar aims to answer these questions by looking at the relationship between natural history, Spanish imperialism, visual culture and observational study. The book is rich in detail and it contains many beautiful examples of botanical illustrations from the eighteenth century. Without a doubt Bleichmar's work is a significant contribution to the history of science and art history. It will be a staple read for anyone interested in natural history and visual culture.
The book is divided into five chapters and it examines over 12,000 illustrations produced by eighteenth-century naturalists and artists throughout the Spanish world. At the heart of Bleichmar's investigation is an awareness of the highly sophisticated visual culture associated with botanical imagery during this period. Thus the focus of the book is not simply on the images themselves but on the entire activity connected with their production and use. Bleichmar calls this approach to studying imagery ‘visual epistemology’. In Chapter 1, Bleichmar shows how the Spanish were trying to make their empire visible from afar. The production of botanical illustrations for natural-history investigations brought distant objects from places such as the Americas to Madrid. Through this process of making the empire visible the abstract became real. Chapter 2 pushes the argument further, and focuses on the application of botanical illustrations in natural history. Bleichmar breaks down observation into a three-part process that involves collecting data, analysing the meaning and representing its results through textual and visual accounts.
Chapter 3 provides a detailed explanation of how botanical illustrations were made. Natural-history images followed a standard style throughout Europe, and readers were expected to understand the iconographic language of these pictures. Naturalists systematized their illustrations just like any other type of data so that researchers could compare and contrast their investigations and reproduce their results. To ensure the accuracy of their visual depictions, botanists and artists worked collaboratively to ensure that each image met certain standards and that they followed natural-historical conventions as closely as possible. As Bleichmar explains, these images were not intended to be true representations of botanical specimens but idealized versions (or composites) depicting an average.
Chapter 4 is particularly interesting and looks at economic botany, which sought to make imperial nature profitable. Within this context, botanists were employed by trading companies to verify the quality of organic resources in Spanish colonial settlements. From an imperial economic perspective it was all about locating, exploiting and promoting the natural wealth of different regions of the world. Imagery played an important part in this process as it was used to show prospective investors what kinds of plant were available in various locations. However, as Bleichmar points out, many problems arose at a practical level. Although imagery served to visually represent the wealth that grew afar, harvesting this material was incredibly difficult. Turning these potential assets into reliable and lucrative resources was fraught with obstacles. Many living specimens perished en route to Spain, while in other instances seeds failed to germinate. In cases where plants were successfully transplanted in Europe, it was very costly to maintain them. The survival of exotic crops was often reliant on hothouses to sustain their growth.
In the final chapter, Bleichmar looks at illustrations of nature that did not adhere to the traditional depictions of natural-history specimens. Instead of showing images of plants with empty white backgrounds that were decontextualized from their natural surroundings, Bleichmar examines images containing humans, plants and animals situated together in nature.
Bleichmar's compelling argument outlines the significance of imagery in constructing nature. The illustrations produced collaboratively by naturalists and artists in places such as New Granada and New Spain formed the foundation of armchair studies in Europe and stimulated imperial economic projects. Nevertheless, there are some points of criticism to consider. Although this study focuses on the Spanish context, it would have been beneficial for Bleichmar to draw more detailed comparisons between the activities of Spanish naturalists and artists, and those of other European nations. There is some passing mention of other European imperial and scientific activities but a more rigorous analysis would have greatly strengthened the examination. Another important issue, which is overlooked in the book, is the role of indigenous populations in making botanical knowledge. The degree to which extra-European and European populations exchanged botanical information remains unclear. Moreover, Bleichmar does not discuss the impact these botanical expeditions and activities had on the daily lives of native groups. An analysis of this tension would add substantial weight to the work and provide the reader with more perspectives, not just those of the Spanish. However, putting aside these issues, this book is a tremendous contribution to the secondary literature which opens up new research areas for exploring the intersection of science, visual culture and empire.
