Introduction
Ethiopia is one of the eight Vavilovian centers of biodiversity in the world. As a result, it has been well known for its high diversity of animal genetic resources and huge livestock population. According to the Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information System (DAGRIS)Reference Kemp, Mamo, Asrat and Dessie1, Ethiopia is a home for 32 recognized cattle breeds, 7 sheep breeds, 13 goat breeds and 10 chicken ecotypes. Moreover, there are four donkey breeds, two horse breeds, two mule types and four camel breeds2. This is despite the paucity of phenotypic characterization work especially for livestock breeds that are kept by minority ethnic groups and pastoralists inhabiting the very remote areas.
The livestock sector in Ethiopia accounts for 13–16% of the national GDP and 30–35% of the agricultural GDP and constitutes 15% of the total export revenue3. This contribution has been made by 43.1 million cattle, 23.6 million sheep, 18.6 million goats, 6.5 million equines (donkeys, horses and mules), 0.62 million camels and 34.2 million chickens mainly kept by subsistence smallholder farmers in the highlands and the pastoralists in the lowland areas4. This huge livestock population has placed Ethiopia among the high-ranking countries in Africa and for some of the species at the international level. More specifically, Ethiopia is known to be first in its cattle population and second for its sheep (next to South Africa) and goat population (following Nigeria) in Africa. Ethiopia also constitutes 39.63% of the African equine population5. Accordingly, its donkey population is the second in the world following China, and its camel population is the third in the world (next to Somalia and Sudan). Therefore, this indicates that Ethiopia has suitable agro-ecological conditions for rearing different types of livestock species.
This huge livestock population and high genetic diversity have ecological, historical, socio-cultural and economic perspectives. For example, an ancient country, Ethiopia has a long-lasting tradition of farming, it is characterized by high agro-ecological diversity and, according to TaddeseReference Taddese6, it constitutes 70% of the African highland mass (>1500 m asl), which is considered to be a suitable environment for farming and human settlement. Accordingly, it was estimated that about two-thirds of the total land mass is suitable for agricultural activities7. Moreover, diversified uses of livestock species and their multiple socio-economic roles are among the main driving forces behind this diversity. Ethiopia is also the homeland for more than 80 ethnic groups that have at least some degree of variation in their practice of livestock farming. This ethnic diversity could be a source of animal genetic resource diversity, because farmers and pastoralists of a given ethnic group might have specific selective breeding practices dictating their needs.
However, the per capita consumption of livestock products in Ethiopia is among the least in the world. For example, according to FAO5, the per capita consumption of milk was 22.5 kg and of meat was 8.5 kg. The main reasons for this low level of consumption are low amount of products obtained from indigenous livestock due to production constraints such as feed shortage, disease problems etc., together with the inherently low genetic potential of indigenous breeds. It was also noted that recurrent drought, poor infrastructure and market development, weak policy supports and institutional arrangements have reduced the performance of the livestock industry7. Moreover, to feed the fast-growing human population (around 3% annual growth), a considerable portion of the grazing land has been increasingly converted into cropland. This has forced smallholder farmers to rely upon highly fibrous and poor-quality crop residues such as straw, stover and stubble, and marginalized grazing lands to feed their cattle. This type of feeding regime was not able to support, for example, the nutritional requirement of improved temperate cattle breeds and their crosses (attempts have been made for decades to improve the performance of indigenous cattle through cross-breeding with temperate breeds) and as a result these improved breeds usually produce below the expected levelReference Mesfin and Ledin8.
However, Ethiopia has a favorable environment for rearing different types of livestock species, especially those already acclimatized to sub-optimal management and low-input–low-output farming systems. The domestic buffalo is one of these species that have indispensable importance in the least developed countries (LDC) for food and agriculture production. Therefore, the objective of this analysis is to synthesize the existing evidence on domestic buffalo production systems and to analyze the feasibility of introducing the riverine-type buffalo into subsistence-oriented Ethiopian farming systems.
Ethiopia's Agro-Ecological Diversification
Ethiopia is located in east Africa and is bounded by geographical coordinates 3°24′–14°53′N and 32°42′–48°12′E. It has a total area of 1.1 million km2 and, of this, an area of 7444 km2 is occupied by major lakes. Its altitude ranges from 125 m below sea level in the Denakil depression to 4543 m asl on Mount Ras Dashen9. Average annual rainfall varies from <100 mm in the arid eastern and south-eastern regions to 2400 mm in the southwest highlands, with a national average of 744 mm10. This wide variation in altitude and rainfall pattern has resulted in 18 major agro-ecological zones that can be further divided into 49 sub-zones11. Ethiopia has major rivers that are 7000 km long, including the famous Blue Nile River that contributes ∼85% of the Nile's water source. Ethiopia also shows wide variation in its temperature, which ranges from below 0 °C to more than 40 °C depending on the altitude and season of the year. However, in the agriculturally important areas, the average daily temperature usually ranges from 10 to 30 °C. This is an ideal temperature for buffalo production, because 20 °C is the optimal environmental temperature for rearing of buffaloesReference Paul and Patil12 and this falls well in the temperature range of agriculturally suitable areas in Ethiopia. However, the best milk breeds of buffaloes (the riverine-type) in India and Pakistan are mostly confined to areas where the summer temperature rises above 46 °C and the winter temperature falls below 4 °CReference Payne and Wilson13.
The Domestic Buffalo
The domestic buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is one of 40 livestock species used in world food and agriculture production. The domestic buffalo species can be divided into two sub-species or types; the riverine- and swamp-typeReference McCool14–Reference Perera16. The diploid set of chromosomes (2n) in the riverine-type is 50, whereas it is 48 for the swamp-typeReference Di Berardino and Iannuzzi17. The swamp-type is mainly used for draft and secondarily for meatReference McCool14, Reference Presicce15, Reference Cruz18, therefore, it is considered as a dual-purpose animalReference McCool14; whereas the primary purpose of keeping riverine-type buffaloes is for milk and secondarily for meatReference Cruz18. However, the riverine-type was noted by McCoolReference McCool14 as triple-purpose animal (milk, draught and meat). Therefore, in both types meat production has secondary importance. Similarly, RanjhanReference Ranjhan19 reported the primary use of buffalo for milk and secondarily for meat production in South Asia. However, SadanaReference Sadana20 reported the use of swamp buffalo to produce small amount of milk and in line with McCoolReference McCool14; SadanaReference Sadana20 has also reported the use of the riverine-type for transport. The swamp buffalo is the most common type in typical South-East Asian rural villagesReference McCool14. However, for example, in India, the riverine-type is widespread throughout the countryReference Sadana20. Generally, the riverine-type is found in South Asia, whereas the swamp-type is distributed across South-East AsiaReference Perera16. Swamp buffaloes are typically smaller and less productive compared to their riverine-type counterparts, whereas the riverine-type is characterized by high milk yield because for decades it has been selected for this traitReference Presicce15.
Common buffalo breeds
India and Pakistan are the home of the best milk breeds of riverine-type buffalo in the world, Murrah and Nili-Ravi; whereas swamp buffaloes are not distinguished into breedsReference Sadana20. Therefore, breed description and diversity in India are made for riverine-type buffaloes only. Moreover, by virtue of its number and importance, the domestic buffalo in India is synonymous with the riverine-type; however, the majority of buffaloes in Vietnam, Thailand, China and adjoining countries are of the swamp-typeReference Sadana20. Important buffalo breeds also include the Jaffarabadi and SurtiReference Devendra, Thomas, Jabbar and Zerbini21. Jaffarabadi is commonly used in many countries for cross-breeding due to its large size and to exploit its high carcass yield potentialReference Cruz18. However, the popular Murrah is known as ‘black gold’ in India and is widespread throughout Asia and the rest of the worldReference Sadana20. However, Singh and BarwalReference Singh and Barwal22 reported the superiority of the Nili-Ravi breed of Pakistan over Indian Murrah and Egyptian buffaloes. Buffalo breeds can also be classified based on their horn orientation. For example, horns are closed and set close to head and are down swept in Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Mehasana, Jaffarabadi and Sambalpur, whereas horns are sickle-shaped and non-swept in Bhadawari, Kalahandi, Kanara, Manda, Nagpuri, Pandharpuri, Tarai and TodaReference Singh and Barwal22.
Population trend
The world's buffalo population is estimated at 170 million head and approximately 97% are found in Asia, whereas the remaining 2% and 0.3% are found in Africa and Europe, respectively23. In Europe and Asia, there is a growing interest in the use of buffaloes for milk and meat production. As a result, the riverine buffaloes have been introduced into many European countries and in swamp buffalo-dominated areasReference Presicce15. Murrah buffalo has been the breed of choice for introduction and is followed by Nili-Ravi, Jaffarabadi and Surti. This is because among domestic buffalo breeds Murrah is a well-known milch breedReference Sadana20. The importance of buffalo in South Asia is increasing faster than that of cattle, although in some East and South-East Asian countries buffalo population has declined rapidlyReference Ranjhan19. This is due to the massive use of farm mechanization which has significantly reduced the swamp buffalo populationReference Cruz18. Despite this, in the majority of the south Asian countries, a major shift has been taking place from cattle to buffalo dairying. The reasons for this include consumers’ preferences for higher butterfat content, persistency of milk production under poor management systems and longer productive life of buffaloReference Devendra, Thomas, Jabbar and Zerbini21. Due to this, for example, buffalo population in the Brazilian Amazon increased at a rate of nearly 13% per annum from 1975 to 2000 compared to cattle with an annual growth rate of 4% only. Therefore, buffalo has steadily gained acceptance as an alternative to cattle, and throughout South America buffalo performs better than cattle both in meat and milk productionReference Sheikh, Merry and McGrath24.
Behavior
Buffaloes are probably among the easiest mammals to train and are more rustic animals compared to cattleReference Presicce15. Therefore, buffalo is considered a cumbersome and docile large ruminantReference McCool14. Hence buffalo's rusticity and its ability to adapt to different environments are among its important charactersReference Younas, Yaqoob, Ahmad, Babar, Ali and Shahzad25. Buffaloes are therefore generally pretty good in their temperament; however, like most animals, the more they are handled the better is their temperament26. Buffaloes have inherent docility, therefore they can easily learn upon training and the occurrence of deliberate attacks on people is perhaps much rarer in buffaloes compared to other livestock speciesReference Cockrill and Cockrill27.
Ecological adaptation
Buffalo rearing has gained importance in recent years due to its innate ability to survive in adverse agro-ecological conditions and due to its special ability of converting poor-quality roughage and crop residues into animal proteinReference Rao, Thulasi, Ruban and Thangaraju28. As a result, buffalo rearing is an integral part of the traditional smallholder mixed farming systemReference Younas, Yaqoob, Ahmad, Babar, Ali and Shahzad25. Buffaloes also have a special ability to subsist on coarse feeds, straws and crop residues and to convert these feed materials into protein-rich lean meatReference Kandeepan, Biswas and Rajkumar29. Moreover, buffaloes are well known for their disease resistance and special ability to survive and thrive under hot, humid climatesReference Paul and Patil12, Reference Cruz18. This has made buffaloes well recognized for their better adaptation to poor feeding, harsh climate and infectious diseasesReference Khan and Niamatullah30. Moreover, buffalo is found in more than 50 countries of the world, varying in their ecology, climate, topography and socio-economic conditions. Buffalo adapts well from tropical conditions of the Indo-Pakistan region to the temperate climate of ItalyReference Khan and Niamatullah30. Therefore, this wide range of adaptation of domestic buffaloReference Payne and Wilson13 indicates its ability to acclimatize to Ethiopia's environment characterized by high agro-ecological diversity. Cattle suffer badly while transiting from dry to wet seasons; however, these conditions bring few problems to buffalo. Due to its ability to adopt and even thrive under difficult conditions of the floodplains, buffalo has now become a popular choice among floodplain ranchersReference Sheikh, Merry and McGrath24. Moreover, due to long-term natural and artificial selection, buffaloes possess many biological features, including resistance to high temperature and humidityReference Bingzhuang, Chunyan and Xianwei31. However, compared to cattle, thermo-regulation is poor in buffalo, therefore, often it requires shade or water for wallowing, although the riverine-type that is proposed for introduction into Ethiopia has better thermo-regulation than the swamp-typeReference Payne and Wilson13.
Utility Pattern
Buffalo is a triple-purpose animal that provides milk, meat and draughtReference Ranjhan19. Moreover, buffalo has resistance to common bovine diseases, shows superior weight gain than cattle, produces high-quality milk and meat products and is able to fatten on a wide range of pasturesReference Sheikh, Merry and McGrath24. Buffaloes produce milk that is rich in nutrients and high in quality and provide draft power and dung/urine as organic fertilizer and provide meat that is known for its flavor and marbling, and other products such as mozzarella cheeseReference Sadana20. Buffaloes contribute 72 million tonnes of milk and 3 million tonnes of meat annually to world food production and this is mainly produced by smallholder farmersReference Singh and Barwal22. For example, buffaloes in India account for 30% of the total meat productionReference Ranjhan19. Buffaloes represent 12% of the world bovine stock, but its share in the world bovine meat export was estimated at 27% in 2007Reference Soliman and Bassiony32. However, some buffalo products have a lower price compared to cattle products. For example, buffalo meat is sold at about half the price of beef and buffalo hide is sold at ∼40% of cattle hide. The live buffalo is sold at 14% of cattle price. The low export value of buffalo meat could be mainly due to low world market demand for buffalo meat and low export value of buffalo hide could be due to low quality and demand. The low price of live buffalo could be mainly due to export of weaned calves rather than fed bulls or steers and/or low carcass weight of the exported buffalo. Despite the low price of exported buffalo meat, India exports by far more buffalo meat than beefReference Soliman and Bassiony32. This might be due to the worship of cows by Hindus, which, in turn, could affect the practice of cattle slaughtering. Generally, buffalo meat is less expensive than cattle beefReference Sheikh, Merry and McGrath24 and is much cheaper than chevon, mutton, pork and poultry. Therefore, it is a cheap source of animal protein for the part of the society with weak purchasing powerReference Ranjhan19.
However, in the case of milk, the market demand and price show a different picture. For example, in Italy, keeping buffaloes is generally considered more remunerative than keeping cattle. This is because the price of buffalo milk is 2.3–2.5 times more than that of cow's milk and this is about 2.5 times in AsiaReference Sastry and Gall33. Similarly in Pakistan, buffalo milk is sold at Rs. 20 per liter, compared to cow's milk which is sold at Rs. 15Reference Khan and Usmani34. Moreover, Payne and WilsonReference Payne and Wilson13 reported the production of excellent, thick and tough leather articles from buffalo hide, hence leather could be considered an important by-product derived from slaughtered and fallen buffaloesReference Ranjhan19. Moreover, on average, about 5 tonnes of dung are produced annually from an adult buffaloReference Ranjhan19. An adult buffalo therefore voids 3–5 kg dry matter and 50–100 g nitrogen every day, besides potassium and other minerals of high manure valueReference Ranjhan and Pathak35. However, 8.4% and 9.3% of the fuel source in the urban and rural areas of Ethiopia, respectively, constitutes cow dung. Therefore, this type of cow dung use competes directly with the use of dung to improve the soil nutrient levelsReference Bewket36. The massive horn of buffalo is also used to produce fancy and decorative horn articlesReference Payne and Wilson13.
Milk production
Under rural subsistence farming systems the average milk yield of buffaloes is 1350 litersReference Pasha37. Approximately 10.75% of the total milk yield is produced in the first month of lactation, whereas ∼12.5% and 11.25% were produced in the second and the third month of lactation, respectivelyReference Singh and Barwal22. In Italy, buffalo cows are commonly milked twice a day with an interval of 11–12 hReference Borghese, Rasmussen and Thomas38. Buffalo's milk is traditionally preferred over cow's milk by the majority of PakistanisReference Pasha37, Reference Javed, Babar, Shafiq and Ali39, Reference Afzal40 due to its aesthetic and creamy characteristics, high milk fat (6–8%), flavor and slightly higher solid not fat (SNF) content (∼9–10.5%). Due to this, buffaloes account for 62% of the total milk production in PakistanReference Afzal40. Moreover, the ratio of butter or ghee output from buffalo milk was approximately three times more than that from cow's milk. Buffalo milk is also highly preferred in soft cheese making and the ratio of milk to soft cheese is 5:1 kg compared to 8:1 for cow's milkReference Pasha37. Moreover, Nili-Ravi and Murrah breeds on average complete three lactations in their production lifetimeReference Singh and Barwal22, which shows their prolific nature.
Milk fat percentage of buffaloes usually exceeds cattle by 1–3%, depending on the breed type and environmental condition and compared to cow's milk, buffalo milk has a higher percentage of all milk componentsReference Zicarelli41. The average fat globule size of buffalo milk is larger and its viscosity is higher (2.04) compared to cow's milk (1.86). Due to its higher dry matter content, buffalo milk has a higher cheese yield, however, this does not seem to be due to the difference in milk quality alone. Moreover, for each protein percent point more than 5 cheese yield points are obtained for buffalo, whereas it is about 3 for cowsReference Zicarelli41. Buffalo milk also has low cholesterol and high calcium content compared to cow's milkReference Pasha37. Moreover, despite its high fat percentage, milk and mozzarella cholesterol content are lower in buffalo's milk than cow's milk (275 mg versus 330 mg and 1562 mg versus 2287 mg, respectively)Reference Zicarelli41. Buffalo milk also contains high levels of the natural antioxidant tocopherol peroxidase, having 2–4 times the activity of cow's milk. Furthermore, there are a growing number of people who suffer from cow's milk allergy but this is not the case for buffalo milkReference Pasha37.
However, according to the findings of Mukasa et al.Reference Mukasa, Ephraim and Taddese42 in the central highlands of Ethiopia lactation milk yield of indigenous cattle was 238 ± 82 liters with associated lactation length of 239 ± 55 days. Payne and WilsonReference Payne and Wilson13 reported that milk of short-horned Zebus in Ethiopia has a fat percentage ranging from 4.7 to 7.1. Therefore, for the majority Ethiopians who prefer to consume a large amount of ghee by adding it as a flavor in a sauce that is consumed together with the traditional bread called ‘enjera’, the high-fat percentage of buffalo milk is readily acceptable. A high cheese yield from buffalo milk would be highly demanded by Ethiopians because cheese is among the commonly consumed milk products. Buffaloes are, however, slow and hard milkers due to their slow milk ejection reflex and their hard teat sphincter muscle, although the pressure during milking is higher in buffaloes than in cattleReference Borghese, Rasmussen and Thomas38.
Meat production and weight gain
Buffaloes, used as draught animals for centuries, have well-built muscles. However, until recently, little attention was given to their use exclusively for meat productionReference Kandeepan, Biswas and Rajkumar29. Despite this, due to its low fat and calorie content, buffalo meat has high demand in India and on the international marketReference Rao, Thulasi, Ruban and Thangaraju28. This is also due to the lean, tender and juicy nature of buffalo meatReference Ranjhan19. Buffalo meat is also the healthiest among red meats due to its low calorie and cholesterol content. It has about a 2–3-fold cost advantage over mutton and goat meat. Furthermore, its use in meat processing is on the increase due to its high lean meat content and low fat percentageReference Kandeepan, Biswas and Rajkumar29. Therefore, due to buffalo's lean natureReference Kandeepan, Biswas and Rajkumar29; most of the buffalo meat from India was exported for meat processing industriesReference Soliman and Bassiony32. However, about 86% of the world buffalo meat is produced in Asia and is mainly obtained from old and culled animals. Meat from these types of buffaloes is dark, less tender, has a strong odor and hence it is poorly accepted by consumersReference Singh and Barwal22. This is indeed true, because meat is mainly produced when buffaloes are retired from their productive livesReference Ranjhan19. However, when young buffaloes are raised under an intensive feeding system their meat is lean, tender and highly palatable and is favorably compared with beef from cattle of similar age and weightReference Singh and Barwal22. The subcutaneous fat layer of the buffalo carcass is usually thinner than that of comparably fed cattle. Thus, the buffalo carcass has a rounder rib, higher proportion of muscle and lower proportion of bone and fat compared with beef. More pigmentation or less intra-muscular fat (1–2% marbling compared with 3–4% in beef) content makes the buffalo meat darkerReference Kandeepan, Biswas and Rajkumar29. However, the dressing percentage of buffaloes is slightly lower than that of cattleReference Singh and Barwal22; and old and unproductive buffaloes have 43–57% dressing percentageReference Kandeepan, Biswas and Rajkumar29. However, this is higher than the dressing percentage of 42–53% reported for Small East African ZebusReference Payne and Wilson13.
Growth is linear in buffalo from birth up to 36 months. The average daily gain ranges from 548 g (3–6 months) to 404 g (birth to 36 months)Reference Singh and Barwal22. However, the Murrah calves grow at a rate of 900–1000 g a day with feed conversion ratio of 5:1Reference Ranjhan19. It was also found that buffalo calves gained more and consumed less amount of feed per unit of gain under restricted feeding systems compared with cow calvesReference Khan and Niamatullah30. Therefore, buffaloes have excellent body weight gain compared with cattleReference Kandeepan, Biswas and Rajkumar29.
Ethiopia is a home for wild buffaloes and there had been a tradition of hunting wild buffalo in some areas as a symbol of heroism and to consume bush meat. However, this tradition has been gradually eroded due to change in the socio-economic, cultural and political atmospheres. Therefore, this shows that the consumption of buffalo meat will not face any restrictive social taboos in Ethiopia.
Draught work
Buffaloes are a major source of draught power, and that is why they have been called live tractors of East and South-East AsiaReference McCool14, Reference Singh and Barwal22. This is because buffaloes provide steady but sure-footed draft power in the remote rural areasReference Sadana20. Therefore, the draught work of buffalo is among its most important uses in the least developed worldReference McCool14. For example, in India 60% of the total farm power is generated from draught animals, of which about 10% is contributed by buffaloes. A buffalo can pull loads of more than six times its body weight, but its common load carrying capacity is 1.5–2.0 tonnes, i.e., 3–4 times its body weight. It can pull this load continuously for 2–3 h and for 6–8 h a day during winter and 5–6 h a day during summer with rest in betweenReference Singh and Barwal22. Similarly, it was reported that the usual load carrying capacity of buffalo was 1.5–2 tonnes continuously for 3–4 h during summer and 6–8 h a day during winterReference Ranjhan19. The swamp-type buffalo is especially important for work on paddy fieldsReference Sadana20. Therefore, even though buffaloes are slow movers compared to cattle, they can pull heavier loadsReference Ranjhan19.
Management Practices
Health care
Although mastitis is not a common problem in buffalo species, it is a costly disease; therefore, the exposure of teat ends to pathogens should be minimizedReference Borghese, Rasmussen and Thomas38. However, the hardy nature of buffaloes minimizes disease problems and allows the use of simpler and cheaper housing and equipmentReference Sastry and Gall33. In buffaloes, the incidence of hemorrhagic septicemia and internal parasites were the highest, followed by foot and mouth disease and pneumonia. Other diseases/disorders include tympani, mastitis, dystocia, rabies and lamenessReference Khan and Usmani34. Major infectious diseases that cause significant losses in Bangladeshi buffalo, for example, include foot and mouth, rabies, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, hemorrhagic septicemia, anthrax, black quarter, bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, calf scour and calf diphtheria. Brucellosis is the main cause of abortion in buffaloReference Devendra, Thomas, Jabbar and Zerbini21. Therefore, a comparable type of health care practiced by smallholder farmers and the veterinary services in Ethiopia can be adopted to control the risk of disease problems in the riverine buffaloes.
Feeds and feeding
Buffaloes are reared in a mixed cut and carry, tethering and grazing on communal pasturelands and using crop residues and agricultural by-productsReference Cruz18. Buffaloes also feed on crop leftoversReference Sadana20 and they can perform better on roughage and marginalized poor pasturesReference Presicce15. As a result, buffaloes have developed the special ability of converting poor-quality roughage into milk, meat and other services and productsReference Sadana20. The superiority of domestic buffalo over cattle in digesting and efficient use of feeds is clearly observed when the two species are kept on a low level of nutritionReference Khan and Niamatullah30. It was also found that buffalo calves digest larger amounts of dry matter and nitrogen-free extract than cow calves under restricted feeding systemsReference Khan and Niamatullah30. One of the characteristics that make buffaloes preferable is therefore their extraordinary ability to convert fibrous feed into energy, and this enables them not to compete with humans for scarce resources such as grainsReference Younas, Yaqoob, Ahmad, Babar, Ali and Shahzad25. Due to its size, a buffalo's rumen harbors large microbial populations that facilitate better digestion of feed. Rumen acidosis is also seldom found in buffalo due to a high rate of saliva secretion which helps buffalo to maintain its rumen pHReference Khan and Niamatullah30. Therefore, for countries such as Ethiopia that commonly rely upon poor-quality roughage such as straw, stover and stubble to feed their cattle, the high efficiency of domestic buffalo in digesting poor-quality roughage is a reward for resource-poor smallholder farmers.
Reproduction
Buffalo has low inherent reproductive capacity, resulting in late sexual maturity in heifers followed by longer inter-calving period and fewer calf cropsReference Javed, Babar, Shafiq and Ali39. Domestic buffaloes are generally known for their poor reproductive efficiency. However, this is largely due to the production environment under which the majority of them are maintained, such as harsh climate, poor nutrition and sub-optimal production inputs. Therefore, they would have good fertility if managed well and properly fedReference Perera16. Buffaloes reach sexual maturity at later ages; however, they have extended longevity. As a result, buffalo cows are well grown before their first calving, and this can help them to maintain their body condition while nursing their calf. This extended longevity ensures that buffalo cows produce more calves in their productive lifetimeReference McCool14. Therefore, a low replacement rate is required due to their long reproductive lifeReference Sastry and Gall33. Moreover, although buffaloes attain puberty at a later age compared to cattle, they have a remunerative longer reproductive lifetimeReference Perera16.
The average age at first calving (AFC) and calving interval (CI) were 48 and 20 months, respectively, under smallholder buffalo production systemsReference Sastry and Gall33. Specifically, the average calving interval in Surti buffaloes was 462 daysReference Singh and Barwal22. Moreover, according to Younas et al.Reference Younas, Yaqoob, Ahmad, Babar, Ali and Shahzad25, the average age at maturity and CI were 34.8 and 17.5 months, respectively. Buffalo heifers usually attain puberty when they reach approximately 55–60% of their adult weight, but the age at which this is achieved largely depends on breed, nutrition, management, climate and year (season) of birthReference Perera16. The gestation length of buffaloes is 312–334 days and is longer than that of cattle (285 days)26. These reported findings on AFC and CI of domestic buffaloes are comparable with the reproductive performance of indigenous cattle under smallholder farmers’ management systems in Ethiopia.
Buffaloes come into heat regularly throughout the year; however, the highest is in October and the lowest is in AprilReference Singh and Barwal22. Similarly, buffalo cows and bulls are capable of breeding throughout the year but they often show seasonal variations in fertility due to climatic and nutritional factors that modulate ovarian and testicular activitiesReference Perera16. Buffaloes usually come into heat in cold months and are sub-fertile during hot monthsReference Singh and Barwal22. In spite of this, buffaloes are polyestrus and are capable of breeding throughout the yearReference Perera16. Natural mating is still the most common breeding practice in buffaloes. The use of artificial insemination (AI) both in the swamp and the riverine buffaloes is still marginal and is less efficient. This is due to small herd size, poor heat detection and poor management. This is because buffalo's reproductive function is largely affected by environmental factors and it has physiological features that make it more similar to that of sheep than cattleReference Presicce15.
Production Systems of Riverine Buffalo in its Breeding Tract (Mainly India) versus Indigenous Cattle in Ethiopia
An attempt was made to compare the production systems of the riverine buffalo maintained in LDC (with special emphasis on India) with production systems maintaining indigenous cattle in Ethiopia. This comparison is made mainly on feed resource base and climatic and agro-ecological indices. The riverine-type buffalo is mainly kept by resource-poor smallholder farmers in the LDC and the same is true for indigenous cattle management in Ethiopia. Therefore, both the riverine buffalo of the LDC and the indigenous cattle of Ethiopia have evolved under fairly comparable types of management (feeding, health care and housing) systems.
The feed resource base
Buffaloes have subsisted for centuries on low-quality fibrous feeds such as rice and wheat straw, which are low in their protein and energy content, and while grazing on natural pasturelandsReference Franzolin43. Moreover, in South-East Asia, buffaloes are mainly fed on cereal straws that are highly lignified and are low both in their fermentable protein and carbohydrate contentsReference Sarwar, Khan, Nisa, Bhatti and Shahzad44. The most limiting nutrient (crude protein, CP) content of these fibrous feeds used in buffalo feed in India is comparable with the commonly used crop residues to feed cattle in Ethiopia (Table 1). It was also noted that majority of the Asian buffaloes are reared in a mixed cut and carry, tethering and grazing system on communal pasturelandReference Sarwar, Khan, Nisa, Bhatti and Shahzad44; which also reflects the feeding systems practiced in Ethiopia. Therefore, this showed that the riverine buffalo can readily acclimatize to the feeding regime of Ethiopia's smallholder farmers who practice a fairly comparable type of feeding system.
Table 1. Crude protein (CP) percent content of commonly used crop residues in India and Ethiopia.
Climatic condition and agro-ecological setting of India and Ethiopia
The climatic indices in Ethiopia fall in the range of the extremes of India's climate (Table 2). Therefore the riverine buffalo can adapt to the climatic conditions of Ethiopia as it did in the Indian sub-continent. Moreover, distribution of the riverine buffalo and Zebu cattle usually overlaps in India. Thus, as Zebu has already adapted to the conditions in Ethiopia for millennia following its introduction from its presumed center of domestication (around India), the riverine buffalo is also expected to have a similar type of adaptation in Ethiopia. Ethiopia's agriculture, with the exception of the non-sedentary pastoral areas, is entirely based on a mixed type of crop–livestock farmingReference Haileslassie, Priess, Veldkamp, Teketay and Lesschen49. This shows that crop production and livestock farming have co-existed as complementary farming activities for millenniaReference Haileslassie, Priess, Veldkamp, Teketay and Lesschen49, Reference Abegaz50; however, competitive interaction is observed when the commonly used natural resources, such as land, are limitedReference Abegaz50. As indigenous cattle have been part of this mixed crop–livestock system, it is expected that, unlike deforestation and the practices of inappropriate tillage that are noted as the main causes of soil degradationReference Bhan51, the proposed introduction of riverine buffalo would fit in this farming system as do cattle, with a relatively small negative effect on the natural resource base. However, improving the grazing land management and the balanced use of crop residues as a source of soil nutrient and feeds would have to be practiced to reduce the depletion of soil nutrients arising from the use of crop residues to feed buffalo and to minimize the outflow of nutrients from the soilReference Abegaz50. This can be further supported by planting improved pastures and by the use of alternative energy sources such as biogas. This is because the slurry produced from biogas plants can be used as a nutrient source to improve the fertility of the soil. These types of management practices are quite important to make the rearing of riverine buffalo a sustainable farming activity. This is indeed true because sustainable agriculture, among others, must be based on the development of appropriate types of soil management practicesReference Lemenih, Karltun and Olsson52.
Table 2. Climatic and agro-ecological setting of India and Ethiopia.
m asl, meters above sea level; m bsl, meters below sea level.
Performance and Adaptation of Swamp versus Riverine Buffaloes
The swamp buffalo has narrow range of adaptation compared to the riverine buffalo and, due to its very nature, it usually requires unlimited access to water to keep itself cool and is lighter in weight. The riverine buffalo, on the other hand, is heavier and its milk yield is much higher13. Therefore, for Ethiopia, where paddy farming is an unimportant practice, introduction of the riverine buffalo would have comparative advantages over the swamp buffalo to increase milk and meat production of the domestic herbivores.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The diverse agro-ecological zone of Ethiopia and the wide range of adaptation of domestic buffalo showed the feasibility of introducing riverine-type buffalo into Ethiopia. Moreover, the riverine buffalo is hardy, has higher milk yield and fat content compared to indigenous cattle and, more importantly, it can thrive well on low-quality roughage. Therefore, introduction of the riverine-type buffalo has economic advantages besides introducing an additional agriculturally important livestock species. However, the reproductive behavior of buffalo is less intense than that of cattle, therefore, understanding this behavior requires thorough follow-up when buffalo cows are in heat. Moreover, maximum care should be taken before introducing the riverine-type buffalo. Thus, identification of suitable areas to establish experimental farms and training of local experts on husbandry practices by experts from countries that have extensive experience of riverine buffalo rearing are required, as recommended by Taye and AyalewReference Taye and Ayalew53.
