Unconscious goals from conscious choices

Unconscious goals are rooted in conscious choices. As Bargh (Reference Bargh, Higgins and Sorrentino1990) articulated, unconscious goals originate from conscious learning, deliberation, and evaluation that over one's lifetime can become automatic responses to eliciting situations or cues. Myriad theories support that unconscious goals originate in individuals' conscious decisions. People choose how, under what conditions, and by what means they will satisfy needs. These decisions eventually become routine, automatically and unconsciously activated under similar circumstances (see Custers & Aarts Reference Custers and Aarts2010; Kruglanski et al. Reference Kruglanski, Shah, Fishbach, Friedman, Chun, Sleeth-Keppler and Zanna2002; Moskowitz et al. Reference Moskowitz, Li, Kirk and Zanna2004; Shah & Gardner Reference Shah and Gardner2008). Many unconscious goals are the result of conscious decisions; consciousness is necessary for models of unconscious goal pursuit.

Unconscious means promote the well-being of the individual

Although we agree with H&B that selective attention and biased perception serve as early-stage orienting mechanisms to promote goal pursuit, we take issue with the claim that attention and perception operate in selfish manners. We instead posit that early-stage mechanisms actually facilitate outcomes that generally benefit the individual. For example, people focus visual attention on (Maner et al. Reference Maner, Gailliot and DeWall2007), perceive as closer (Balcetis & Dunning Reference Balcetis and Dunning2010), and see as bigger (Van Koningsbruggen et al. Reference Van Koningsbruggen, Stroebe and Aarts2011) those objects in their environment they are motivated to acquire compared with objects they are not. Similarly, people see objects that pose a threat against which people may need to defend themselves as closer than objects that are either nonaffective or that are disgusting but do not pose a danger that requires immediate response (Cole et al. Reference Cole, Balcetis and Dunning2013; Harber et al. Reference Harber, Yeung and Iacovelli2011). Importantly, unconscious goals systematically direct attention and affect perception in ways that serve individuals' needs (Balcetis & Dunning Reference Balcetis and Dunning2006). Perceiving desired rewards or dangerous threats as focal, close, or large readies the perceiver physiologically and psychologically for goal-related action that ultimately leads to the satisfaction and termination of the active goal state (Balcetis & Dunning Reference Balcetis and Dunning2010; Pichon et al. Reference Pichon, de Gelder and Grezes2012). For example, people see a bottle of water as bigger and closer, in order to facilitate acquisition of it, and ultimately end their need state of thirst and goal to acquire a drink. Unconscious early-stage orienting mechanisms emerge in ways that promote individuals' well-being, not necessarily the continued activation of the goal

Selflessness of unconscious goal pursuit

We counter the metaphoric portrayal of unconscious goals as selfish. First, unconscious goals coordinate within a cooperative goal system through multiple processes, including goal shielding. At times, a primary goal inhibits progress on another goal with which it is incompatible. Although dominance of the primary goal may be regarded as selfish, the circumstances under which inhibition occurs suggest it is not. Primary goals do not inhibit secondary goals indiscriminately; instead they often selflessly facilitate compatible secondary goals (e.g., Shah Reference Shah2003). Inhibition occurs only when secondary goals are antagonistic with individuals' needs and well-being. For example, weight-loss goals inhibit pleasure-eating goals (Fishbach et al. Reference Fishbach, Friedman and Kruglanski2003). Egalitarian goals inhibit stereotyping goals (Moskowitz & Li Reference Moskowitz and Li2011). Studying goals inhibit socializing goals (Aarts et al. Reference Aarts, Custwers and Holland2007). Inhibition is not an act of a primary goal's selfish nature, but an act of shielding an individual from undesired obstacles and distractions.

Second, unconscious goals coordinate by relying on processes that are mutually beneficial for pursuit of multiple goals. Indeed, there are multiple behaviors, choices, or thoughts people can use to attain a single goal – a quality known as equifinality. For example, individuals who hold the goal to be a good kisser might frequently apply lip balm, read magazines for tips, and brush their teeth after every meal. Yet individuals pursue a given goal in manners that can facilitate the simultaneous pursuit of more than one goal. The means selected are those that have compounded value by being able to allow multiple goals to reach fulfillment – a quality referred to as multifinality. Individuals may prioritize tooth brushing to meet the goal to kiss well and maintain dental health. Indeed, goal-directed behaviors are valued highly when they can serve multiple goals and are valued less highly when they serve only a single goal (Chun et al. Reference Chun, Kruglanski, Friedman and Sleeth-Keppler2011). Rather than selfishly pursuing the means to one goal at the expense of others, unconscious processes coordinate in pursuit of the simultaneous completion of multiple goals.

To be sure, the metaphor of the selfish goal could be sustained in light of the literature just reviewed. Indeed, selfish motives do drive other forms of prosocial responding (e.g., Cialdini et al. Reference Cialdini, Schaller, Houlihan, Arps, Fultz and Beaman1987). It is possible that goals hold parasitic relationships with one another. One goal might coordinate with a second goal only to selfishly reap the benefits of the compounded value that such coordination affords.

Nonetheless, a third literature leads to the conclusion that goals are not selfish but instead suicidal. Rather than attempting to preserve themselves, goals seek to end themselves. To be sure, goals are strong; they remain accessible as time passes (Bargh et al. Reference Bargh, Gollwitzer, Lee-Chai, Barndollar and Trotschel2001) and do not dissipate if disrupted (e.g., Zeigarnik Reference Zeigarnik1927). However, goal striving decays quickly after individuals attain their goals (e.g., Cesario et al. Reference Cesario, Plaks and Higgins2006; Förster et al. Reference Förster, Liberman and Friedman2007; Martin & Tesser Reference Martin, Tesser, Moskowitz and Grant2009; Moskowitz Reference Moskowitz2002; Moskowitz et al. Reference Moskowitz, Li, Ignarri and Stone2011; Wicklund & Gollwitzer Reference Wicklund and Gollwitzer1982). That is, goals die once completed. They do not seek to selfishly propagate their own existence, but instead seem compelled to work toward self-termination and, in so doing, deliver well-being and need-fulfillment.

Summary

H&B thoroughly review the principles that underlie unconscious goal pursuit that have overhauled psychological characterizations of human motivation. We question, though, whether it is appropriate to cast aside consciousness and to brand unconscious goal pursuit as inherently selfish. Unconscious goals promote well-being through early mechanisms, in coordination with other goals, at the risk of their own demise. Unlike genes, goals are inherently unselfish. They are servants of the higher-order needs of the individual, selflessly working to promote well-being.