The duality of human nature, consisting of positive and negative personality traits, has intrigued scholars in different fields. Despite an overwhelming dominance of research on positive characteristics, particularly in the field of education, negative traits, such as those constituting the Dark Triad (DT; i.e., Psychopathy, Narcissism, and Machiavellianism) have been confirmed to be associated with both positive and detrimental outcomes. This paper aims to investigate the potential influence of these aversive traits on second language (L2) learning outcomes—L2 learning motivation, engagement, achievement, and willingness to communicate. L2 learners from a single country (n = 431) participated in this study. Multiple structural equation models (SEMs) were run to analyze the links and the directionality of significant effects. Overall, among the undesirable DT traits, Psychopathy and Narcissism were both positive and negative predictors of the L2 outcomes, while Machiavellianism unexpectedly emerged solely as a positive predictor. The intricacy of the results underscores the vague nature of the effects, pinpointing the need for more caution while examining negative personality traits in education and the L2 contexts. Based on the results of this study, implications and directions for future research on DT and language learning are suggested.

Fluency, intelligibility, comprehensibility, and accentedness are important dimensions of second language (L2) pronunciation proficiency representing global, listener-based intuitions. This study meta-analyzed 49 reports from 1995 to 2023, examining 141 effect sizes (Pearson r) to understand their relationships and possible moderators. Three-level meta-analysis models showed weighted mean correlations of .82, .75, .62, .57, and .32 for fluency/comprehensibility, comprehensibility/accentedness, fluency/accentedness, intelligibility/comprehensibility, and intelligibility/accentedness, respectively. Task types moderated correlations for fluency/accentedness, intelligibility/comprehensibility, and intelligibility/accentedness, with controlled tasks leading to higher correlations. Ratings of multiple dimensions by the same listeners tended to result in weaker correlations for fluency/comprehensibility and comprehensibility/accentedness. The findings imply that having an accent does not mean being unintelligible and support prioritizing intelligible and comprehensible speech over accent reduction. The study also highlights an over-reliance on first language speaker norms in L2 pronunciation research and advocates for more transparent reporting.

Research on second language (L2) speech learning suggests that incidental perception training can lead to the establishment of non-native phonological categories. The present study contributes to this line of enquiry by investigating how this training is mediated by individual differences in working memory capacity and domain-general auditory processing abilities. In our study, 130 native British English speakers without prior knowledge of Portuguese were randomly assigned to trained or untrained conditions. All participants completed a visual digit span task and an auditory processing test battery. We observed improvements from pretest to post-test in production only, but since both groups improved, these gains cannot be attributed to the incidental perception training. The analysis of the ID measures further confirms the important role played by auditory processing abilities in L2 speech learning. However, more research is needed to better understand the role of incidental perception training and the mediating role of cognitive aptitudes.

Lexical proficiency is a multifaceted phenomenon that greatly impacts human judgments of writing quality. However, the importance of collocations’ contribution to proficiency assessment has received less attention than that of single words, despite collocations’ essential role in language production. This study, therefore, investigated how aspects of collocational proficiency affect the ratings that examiners give to English learner essays. To do so, collocational features related to sophistication and accuracy were manipulated in a set of argumentative essays. Examiners then rated the texts and provided rationales for their choices. The findings revealed that the use of lower-frequency words significantly and positively impacted the experts’ ratings. When used as part of collocations, such words then provided a small yet significant additional boost to ratings. Notably, there was no significant effect for increased collocational accuracy. These findings suggest that low-frequency words within collocations are particularly salient to examiners and deserving of pedagogic focus.

Additional language speakers (ALSs) often experience anxiety due to challenges posed by their nonstandard pronunciation. Building on these insights, this paper introduces an instrument, the Accent Anxiety Scale (AAS), specifically designed to assess three sources of anxiety that are experienced by ALSs, including (a) apprehension about negative evaluations from other individuals due to their distinctive speech style, (b) concerns about rejection from the target language community because of their “foreign” pronunciation, and (c) anxieties over potential communication hurdles attributed to the intelligibility of their pronunciation. We evaluated the psychometric robustness of the AAS by analyzing data from a total of 474 immigrant and international student ALSs at a predominantly English-speaking Canadian university. Study 1 focused on immigrants (N = 203) and employed exploratory factor and correlational analyses to isolate a concise number of internally consistent and valid items for each subscale. Study 2 extended these analyses to international students (N = 153) and employed confirmatory factor and correlation analyses to further validate the AAS in this population. Study 3 examined international students (N = 118) at two time points to establish the AAS’s temporal stability. These studies yielded robust psychometric evidence for the factor structure, reliability, and validity of the AAS. The findings not only support the use of the AAS as a research instrument but also offer implications for pedagogical strategies aimed at alleviating ALSs’ accent anxiety.

This paper explores how long-term bilingualism affects the production of intervocalic plosive consonants (/p t k b d ɡ/) in the speech of Afrikaans–Spanish bilinguals from Patagonia, Argentina. We performed sociolinguistic interviews with three speaker groups: L1-Afrikaans/L2-Spanish bilinguals (14 speakers, interviewed separately in Spanish and Afrikaans), L1-Spanish comparison speakers from Patagonia (10 speakers), and L1-Afrikaans comparison speakers from South Africa (11 speakers). We analyzed the speech data using three acoustic measures (constriction duration, relative intensity, and percent voicing) to examine the degree of lenition of the target plosives. The results demonstrate a complex interplay of factors that bring about cross-language influence, which varies based on the target phoneme and phonetic measure. Notably, the findings suggest that phenomena that are gradient phonetic processes in both languages of bilingual speakers (such as the lenition of voiceless plosives in Spanish and Afrikaans) pattern differently than phenomena that are phonological in one language but phonetic in the other (such as lenition of voiced plosives in Spanish versus Afrikaans).

There is evidence that learning a second language (L2) can shift cognition toward that predicted for the L2 and that this effect might vary with L2 proficiency, age of acquisition, length of immersion, etc. Here we explore the previously neglected variable of language instructional conditions. Participants categorized motion events in a triads-matching task after being trained on two novel linguistic labels highlighting (in)transitivity through one of three instructional conditions. Participants who learned the relevant knowledge under a meaning-focused instructional condition (memorizing meanings of exemplar sentences) showed a higher likelihood of categorizing based on motion (in)transitivity immediately after training than a control group; those who learned under a required rule search instructional condition showed this effect only after additional practice; while those who learned through another type of form-focused instructional condition (direct metalinguistic explanation) did not show this effect even after such practice. These differences were obtained despite the fact that the three groups were matched on awareness of the target system at the level of understanding and near-perfect performance on a grammaticality judgment task. The findings are discussed in terms of the depth of processing in instructed SLA and models of language–cognition interactions.

This study investigated factors influencing the citations of highly cited applied linguistics research over two decades. With a pool of 302 of the top 1% most cited articles in the field, we identified 11 extrinsic factors that were independent of scientific merit but could significantly predict citation counts, including journal-related, author-related, and article-related features. Specifically, the results of multiple linear regression models showed that the time-normalized article citations were significantly predicted by the number of authors, subfield, methodology, title length, CiteScore, accessibility, and scholar h-index. The remaining factors did not exhibit any statistical significance, including the number of references, funding, internationality, and geographical origin. The combined predictive power of all these factors (R²=.208, p<.05) verifies the role of nonscientific factors contributing to high citations for applied linguistics research. These results encourage applied linguistics researchers and practitioners to recognize the underlying forces affecting research impact and highlight the need for a reward system that exclusively favors sound academic practices.

This study conceptually replicates Cepeda, Coburn, Rohrer, Wixted, Mozer, & Pashler’s (2009, Experiment 1) study on the effects of distributed practice on second language (L2) vocabulary learning to examine its generalizability to a new context and population sample. The secondary focus of the paper is to examine the challenges and affordances of online data collection and participant recruitment sites. Both the original and our study examined the effects of distributed practice on two study sessions to learn L2 vocabulary assessed on a 10-day delayed posttest. Our results showed that the spaced conditions significantly outperformed the massed condition, mirroring the original study’s findings. However, Cepeda et al.’s (2009) participants outscored our participants by 10–20% (in each experimental group) on the posttest. While these findings highlight the benefits of spacing towards learning and memory, they also underscore the challenges researchers may face when conducting experimental research in online environments.

This study is designed to understand embarrassment in the second/foreign language (L2) context. Following a mixed-method design, in Phase 1, a sample of 141 tertiary-level Austrian English language learners were asked to write a narrative about their experiences of embarrassment in their language learning histories. Analyzing the narratives showed that L2 embarrassment is a multidimensional construct that is frequently experienced by a range of language learners. In Phase 2, we developed and validated an L2 classroom speaking embarrassment (L2CSE) scale among a sample of 402 international English language learners drawing on the literature and analysis of the narratives. Data showed that L2 embarrassment is best represented by a bifactor exploratory structural equation model, capturing both general and specific aspects of L2 embarrassment. We found that a supportive classroom environment and fostering a growth mindset can decrease the risk of L2 embarrassment. As expected, L2 embarrassment was a negative predictor of willingness to communicate and self-perceived language proficiency. These initial findings suggest that L2 embarrassment could be an important and influential emotion in the language learning classroom context which requires further research.

A common way of acquiring multiword expressions is through language input, such as during reading and listening. However, this type of learning is slow. Identifying approaches that optimize learning from input, therefore, is an important language-learning endeavor. In the present study, 85 learners of English as a foreign language read short texts with 42 figurative English phrasal verbs, repeated three times. In a counterbalanced design, we manipulated access to definitions (before text, after text, no definition) and typographic enhancement (with bolding, without bolding). The learning was measured by immediate and delayed gap-fill and meaning generation posttests. All posttests showed that learning with definitions was better than without, and that access to definitions after reading was more beneficial than before reading. Typographic enhancement effectively promoted contextual learning of phrasal verbs and increased the learning advantage associated with presenting definitions after reading.

The current study examined the comprehension and production of classifiers, case marking, and morphological passive structures among 414 child Japanese heritage speakers (mean age = 10.01 years; range = 4.02 – 18.18). Focusing on individual differences, we extracted latent experiential factors via the Q-BEx questionnaire (De Cat, Kašćelan, Prévost, Serratrice, Tuller, Unsworth, & The Q.-Be Consortium, 2022), which were then used to predict knowledge and use of these grammatical structures. The findings reveal that: (i) experiential factors such as heritage language (HL) engagement at home and within the community modulate grammatical performance differentially from childhood through adolescence, and (ii) HL proficiency, immersion experiences, and literacy systematically predict HL grammatical outcomes. These results indicate that particular language background factors hold differential significance at distinct developmental stages and that higher proficiency, richer immersion experiences, and literacy engagement in the HL are crucial for the development of core grammatical structures.

A long-standing concern in the field of second language acquisition is that replication studies are not only infrequent but also poorly designed, reported, and labeled. This special issue responds to an urgent need for action by showcasing eleven high-quality replication studies. In doing so, this collection highlights exemplary standards in replication study design and reporting. This introduction to the special issue provides readers with a point of reference for what replication research is, including why replication studies are needed, issues about originality and innovation in replication research, how replication studies can be designed and conducted, and recent advances and resources to support future replication efforts in the field. The introduction concludes with an overview of each study in the special issue, highlighting its main components and discussing how the replication strengthens the field and advances knowledge and understanding about the topic.

Twenty-five years ago, the publication of an article by Pallier, Colomé, and Sebastián-Gallés (2001) launched a new and rapidly evolving research program on how second language (L2) learners represent the phonological forms of words in their mental lexicons. Many insights are starting to form an overall picture of the unique difficulties for establishing functional and precise phonolexical representations in L2; however, for the field to move forward it is pertinent to outline its major emerging research questions and existing challenges. Among significant obstacles for further research, the paper explores the current lack of theoretical agreement on the concept of phonolexical representations and the underlying mechanism involved in establishing them, as well as the variable use of the related terminology (e.g., fuzziness and target-likeness). Methodological challenges involved in investigating phonological processing and phonolexical representations as well as their theoretical implications are also discussed. To conclude, we explore the significance of L2-specific phonological representations for the bottom-up lexical access during casual, conversational speech and how our emerging knowledge of L2 lexical representations can be applied in an instructional setting as two potentially fruitful research avenues at the forefront of the current research agenda.

This study investigates how second language (L2) learners engage in prediction based on their processing goals. While prediction is a prominent feature of human sentence comprehension in first–language speakers, it remains less understood when and how L2 learners engage in predictive processing. By conducting a visual–world eye–tracking experiment involving Chinese–speaking L2 learners of Korean, we tested the hypothesis that L2 learners determine whether to engage in prediction by evaluating the costs and benefits of anticipatory processing. The experiment specifically focused on the impact of a top–down comprehension goal for L2 learners’ predictive use of an honorific form in Korean by providing them with different types of task instruction. Our results indicated that all groups engaged in predictive processing in early and entire predictive regions. However, in the late predictive region, L2 learners presented with a prediction–oriented task, but not those with a simple comprehension task, actively generated expectations about the honorific status of an upcoming referent. These findings lend support to the utility account of L2 prediction, suggesting that L2 learners’ engagement in prediction depends on their current goals and strategies for processing efficiency.

The present study aims to meta-analyze the reliability of second language (L2) reading assessments and identify the potential moderators of reliability in L2 reading comprehension tests. We examined 3,247 individual studies for possible inclusion and assessed 353 studies as eligible for the inclusion criteria. Of these, we extracted 150 Cronbach’s alpha estimates from 113 eligible studies (years 1998–2024) that reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients properly and coded 27 potential predictors comprising of the characteristics of the study, the test, and test takers. We subsequently conducted a reliability generalization (RG) meta-analysis to compute the average reliability coefficient of L2 reading comprehension tests and identify potential moderators from 27 coded predictor variables. The RG meta-analysis found an average reliability of 0.79 (95% CI [0.78, 0.81]). The number of test items, test piloting, test takers’ educational institution, study design, and testing mode were found to respectively explain 16.76%, 5.92%, 4.91%, 2.58%, and 1.36% of variance in reliability coefficients. The implications of this study and future directions are further discussed.

This study closely replicates Wong, Zhao, & MacWhinney (2018), who found that cognitive linguistics–inspired instruction (i.e., schematic diagram feedback) demonstrated a superiority effect over traditional instruction (i.e., rule and exemplar feedback or corrective feedback) on the translation test but not the cloze test. While the original study adopted the null hypothesis testing approach, the current study adopted Bayesian mixed effects logistic models to investigate how different variables might affect the learnability of prepositions among 81 Chinese-speaking learners of English. The research design, materials, and procedure are nearly identical to those of the original study except for an added delayed posttest. Our findings are generally consistent with the results reported in the original study, indicating that the cognitive linguistics–informed instruction demonstrates superiority effect. Furthermore, these positive learning outcomes persist over time, as evidenced by the results of the delayed posttest.

In this study, we approximately replicated Papi and Khajavy’s (2021) investigation into the regulatory focus in second language acquisition, applying their approach to a significantly larger cohort of 855 Chinese second language (L2) learners. In contrast with the original study, our research employed the College English Test Band 4 (CET-4), a standardized English test, to better align with the Chinese educational context. This methodological shift allowed for a nuanced exploration of the regulatory focus’s role in language learning among Chinese students. Our results predominantly reinforce the crucial role of regulatory focus in language learning, echoing Papi and Khajavy’s findings. We discovered notable parallels in how promotion positively influences ideal own and ideal other, and how prevention negatively impacts ought own and ought other. However, a unique finding of our study was the stronger impact of ought selves on L2 anxiety and enjoyment in the Chinese context. This highlights the nuanced influence of socioeducational environments on regulatory focus strategies, suggesting contextual variability in language learning strategies.