This book is a valuable monograph on Khāqāni, one of Persia's great poets. Monographs on classical Persian masters in European languages are usually limited to poets such as Ferdowsi, Nezāmi, Hāfez, Sa’di, Rumi and Khayyām. Unfortunately, little attention has been paid to dozens of other poets who shine in the firmament of the Persian literary tradition. Khāqāni is one of these celebrated poets. His full name is Afzal al-Din Ebrāhim Badil b. ‘Ali b. ‘Othmān (c. 1126–1198). He was an innovative and productive poet whose collected poetry (Diwān) is voluminous. He also wrote a didactic epic in mathnavi form entitled Tohfat al-‘Erāqayn (‘Gift of the Two Iraqs’), and sixty letters. Although external sources are meager, his own works are a rich mine for biographical information.

In the Persian literary tradition, Khāqāni is famous for his enigmatic, intricate and convoluted poetic style, which may have contributed to the neglect of his work, although paradoxically this very sophisticated poetic style has attracted the attention of a handful of scholars in the West. Benedict Reinert states that his poetry is based on Persian concettismo, a style of dense allusions to ideas from diverse disciplines and ideologies combined with references to his personal life, to such an extent that it is difficult to fully appreciate the conceits. Khāqāni's knowledge was more extensive than other Persian poetae docti of his time, and he has a novel way of using rhetorical figures such as the fantastic aetiology, congruity of images, hyperboles, amphibology, and a wide range of other figures. As Reinert rightly indicates, “Not without reason he felt himself in this respect superior to his predecessors and contemporaries and he was convinced that future poets also would draw on his muse”.Footnote ¹

The book under review originally appeared as a PhD dissertation at Harvard University under the supervision of the eminent scholar Wheeler M. Thackston. Its central thesis relates to the development of the Persian ghazal, and a large portion of the book is devoted to this important poetic form. Chapter One (pp. 1–11) describes the organisation of the book and attempts a definition of the term ghazal, while Chapter Two (pp. 12–112) explains the development of this genre from the outset of Persian poetry in the ninth century to Khāqāni's life in the twelfth. The author concentrates on the origins, developments and characteristics of the early Persian poetic style known as sabk-e Khorāsāni, which developed in an area covering contemporary Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and parts of Iran. While paying attention to the rise of Persian dynasties in the ninth and the tenth centuries, Korangy concentrates on the stylistic aspects of the major poets of this early period such as Rudaki (d. about 940), Daqiqi (d. 978), Kisā’i Marvazi (d. about 1000), ‘Onsori (d about. 1039), Manuchehri (d. about 1041), Farrokhi (d. about 1038), Mo’ezzi (d. 1125), and Shahid Balkhi (d. 936). Each of these poets had a different style and a different way of presenting abstract ideas, and concrete objects in their poetry. For instance, Kisā’i writes ascetic and admonitory religious poetry while Manuchehri writes erotic lyrics and animated descriptions of courtly objects, yet their inimitable simple style, use of bacchanalian and amatory motifs, and congruent use of imagery, metaphors and similes bind them together to form a certain type of lyrical language. Korangy believes that the seeds of ascetic motifs in Persian ghazals are already visible in Kisā’i's poetry, in the same way that elements of bacchanalia in the ghazal derive from poets such as Manuchehri. Korangy supplements this observation with a study of the Arabic literary motifs used by Persian poets in this period. Korangy's exposition shows how the Persian lyrical style developed in this early period, as a basis for comparison with Khāqāni. What is interesting of Korangy's approach is that he surveys the entire Persian poetic tradition to discuss ghazal-like passages, showing the development of the ghazal genre. The author offers many examples from Persian poetry, accompanied by English translations.

In Chapter Three (pp. 113–259), the author narrows his focus to a few poets who had a lasting impact on the development of the ghazal in the broadest sense. This chapter functions as a transition between the previous discussions of poems with ghazal-like contents and style, and Khāqāni's era, when the ghazal blossomed, to bear its fairest fruit in the fourteenth century with the grand lyricist Hāfez. In this long chapter, Korangy elaborates on the development of the ghazal in the twelfth century to relate Khāqāni to this tradition and show how he distinguishes himself from other poets through his innovative use of literary motifs, imagery, metaphors, and learned allusions. The twelfth century is an important period for the development of the Persian ghazal as it was in this era that Islamic mystical ideas and scientific concepts entered the Persian poetic idiom. It was also a time when many poets abandoned the inimitable simple ‘Khorasani’ style, and contrived new and intricate metaphors based on their detailed knowledge of various scientific areas such as medicine, botany, astronomy and astrology, alchemy, etc. Korangy gives examples from the works of several poets, each time elaborating on a different thematic aspect of the ghazal. For example, in his discussion of Sanā’i he concentrates on essential themes and motifs such as zohdiyyāt and qalandariyyāt, closely associated with this poet. Korangy includes poets who have received less attention in Western scholarship such as Abd al-Wāset Jabali (d.c. 1160), Zahir al-Din Fāriyābi (d. 1201), Mojir al-Din Baylaqāni (d.c. 1198), Falaki Shirvāni, and a number of others. He shows how their poetry was related, rhetorically, paradigmatically, and semantically, with the purpose of illuminating Khāqāni's convoluted and multi-layered compositions. Korangy also uses this comparative approach to support the dating of Khāqāni's poems by comparison to other poems written by his (near) contemporaries. In several cases, as in his treatment of Jamāl al-Din Esfahāni (pp. 204–206), Korangy selects lyrical passages from a qasida to show that it could be interpreted as a transition to the ghazal. Several scholars have recently examined the development of the Persian ghazal, but a comprehensive study was lacking. Among the most important previous treatments are J. T. P. de Bruijn's article in the Encyclopaedia Iranica and his other publications. A strong aspect of this chapter is Korangy's presentation of emulations of a single poem, such as the innumerable works inspired by Rudaki's famous poem on ‘the scent of Muliyān’ (bu-ye ju-ye muliyān). Korangy cites examples that illustrate the individual style of each poet and how they try to respect earlier poets, but also to outshine them and their own contemporaries.

Chapter Four (pp. 262–323) is devoted to Khāqāni's life, times and ideas. Korangy has undertaken the laborious task of compiling biographical information from Khāqāni's huge and inaccessible corpus. He starts by establishing the date of the poet's birth based on his poetry, and moves to his education and the personal relationships that were instrumental for the burgeoning of his talents as a learned poet and a master of ornate prose. Korangy also focuses on Khāqāni as a poet, since his “best poems describe his life experiences and other historical events along the way, helping him add a certain enigma upon which he can build his multifarious images”. (p. 266) There are several fine passages of this chapter that could be enlarged upon here, but I will limit myself to Korangy's treatment of Khāqāni's Christian imagery. In fact, any study of Christian imagery in Persian would be incomplete without a close study of Khāqāni. Having a Nestorian mother, Khāqāni was well-versed in Christian history, doctrines and rites, using a rich array of metaphors based on the church, cross and wine, but also on concepts such as Jesus's healing powers and his ascension. The chapter includes other remarkable sections that will help students of Khāqāni to appreciate his poetry. These include sections on the poet's use of backgammon and other board games, astrology and astronomy, and more specific poetic imagery used by Khāqāni such as the khatt-e Baghdād. This is a reference to lines of measurements in a wine cup: the poet tells us he wishes to drink a lot of wine, as the ‘Baghdad line’ is drawn almost at the top of the cup.

Chapter Five (pp. 324–428) can be regarded as the book's central chapter, as it is exclusively devoted to Khāqāni's ghazals. It is an enjoyable read, with an abundance of translated ghazals and rhetorical analyses that elucidate the unique character of Khāqāni's style. Korangy also makes several noteworthy observations about the use of metre which certainly deserve further examination. Korangy observes that the metres Khāqāni uses are longer than those of previous or future poets. Korangy offers several reasons for this: “it would be difficult for a poet to use the shorter meters found in sabk-i Khurasani in the works of such poets as Manuchehri, Rudaki and others”. (pp. 337–338) Another reason for the use of longer metres is the infusion of mystic thoughts and themes. A third reason is the increasing use of the prosodic refrain (radif). These are interesting observations, which certainly require further examination to increase our knowledge of the development of Persian poetry. There are other reasons for the changes in the use of metre by Persian poets, which certainly deserve further investigation, de Bruijn's work on the development of Persian prosody could well be an excellent example.Footnote ²

Similar studies of the Arabic ghazal are available, but the development of the ghazal in Persian poetry, as a distinct genre seen in its historical frame, with all its stylistic complexities in metaphors and imagery, was a desideratum. Korangy's book will undoubtedly be followed by further examination of the development of Persian ghazals. Its strength lies in the inclusion of different stylistic aspects in early poetry as to position the ghazal genre in the Persian literary landscape. The large number of translations from different periods is commendable. Korangy made a daring choice in choosing Khāqāni as the focus for his study. Khāqāni is an innovator in Persian poetry and a sophisticated poet and writer who employs scientific allusions and intricate metaphors. Only a few scholars have produced studies of Khāqāni's poetry, and Korangy's study will be a must for anyone interested in this brilliant poet.