Hostname: page-component-6dbcb7884d-cm8hq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-13T17:25:55.295Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Detection methods and prevalence of transmission stages of Toxoplasma gondii, Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. in fresh vegetables: a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2020

Salma Berrouch ,
Sandie Escotte-Binet ,
Rajae Harrak ,
Antoine Huguenin ,
Pierre Flori ,
Loïc Favennec ,
Isabelle Villena  and
Jamaleddine Hafid Open the ORCID record for Jamaleddine Hafid [Opens in a new window]
Salma Berrouch
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Food, Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, ESCAPE EA 7510, SFR CAP SANTE, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, and CHU Reims, Hospital Maison Blanche, National Reference Centre of Toxoplasmosis, Reims, France
Sandie Escotte-Binet
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, ESCAPE EA 7510, SFR CAP SANTE, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, and CHU Reims, Hospital Maison Blanche, National Reference Centre of Toxoplasmosis, Reims, France
Rajae Harrak
Affiliation:
Regional Laboratory for Epidemiological Diagnosis and Environmental Health, Marrakech, Morocco
Antoine Huguenin
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, ESCAPE EA 7510, SFR CAP SANTE, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, and CHU Reims, Hospital Maison Blanche, National Reference Centre of Toxoplasmosis, Reims, France
Pierre Flori
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Infectious Agents, Parasitology Section, GIMAP, Faculty of Medicine, Saint-Etienne, France
Loïc Favennec
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Parasitology, EA 7510 ESCAPE, University of Rouen, CHU Rouen, National Reference Centre of Cryptosporidiosis, Rouen, France
Isabelle Villena
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, ESCAPE EA 7510, SFR CAP SANTE, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, and CHU Reims, Hospital Maison Blanche, National Reference Centre of Toxoplasmosis, Reims, France
Jamaleddine Hafid*
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Food, Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco
*
Author for correspondence: Jamaleddine Hafid, E-mail: hfjamal@yahoo.fr
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

One of the ways of human parasitic infection is the accidental ingestion of vegetables contaminated with parasites, which represents a major human health hazard. This non-exhaustive review aims to evaluate studies carried out on five types of vegetables (lettuce, parsley, coriander, carrot and radish) since 2000, particularly the methods used for recovery, concentration, detection and identification of protozoan parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii, Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp., and the results of each work. Various studies have determined the presence of pathogenic parasites in fresh vegetables with different rates; this variation in rate depends particularly on the detection method used which is related to each parasite and each vegetable type. The variation in parasitic prevalence in food could be due to different factors such as the geographical location, the size of analysed samples and the methods used for parasite detection.

Keywords

CryptosporidiumdetectionGiardiaprevalence of contaminationToxoplasmavegetables
Type
Review Article
Information
Parasitology , Volume 147 , Issue 5 , April 2020 , pp. 516 - 532
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Isabelle Villena is an equal contributor to this publication.

References

Abougrain, AK, Nahaisi, MH, Madi, NS, Saied, MM and Ghenghesh, KS (2010) Parasitological contamination in salad vegetables in Tripoli-Libya. Food Control 21, 760–762.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adam, EA, Yoder, JS, Gould, LH, Hlavsa, MC and Gargano, JW (2016) Giardiasis outbreaks in the United States, 1971–2011. Epidemiology and Infection 144, 2790–2801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ahmad, SO, El Fadaly, HA, Zaki, MS and Barakat, AMA (2016) Incidence of zoonotic parasites in Egyptian raw vegetable salads. Life Science Journal 13, 27–31.Google Scholar
Ahmed, SA and Karanis, P (2018) An overview of methods/techniques for the detection of Cryptosporidium in food samples. Parasitology Research 117, 629–653.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ajzenberg, D, Cogné, N, Paris, L, Bessières, M, Thulliez, P, Filisetti, D, Pelloux, H, Marty, P and Dardé, M (2002) Genotype of 86 Toxoplasma gondii isolates associated with human congenital toxoplasmosis, and correlation with clinical findings. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 186, 684–689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al-Binali, AM, Bello, CS, El-Shewy, K and Abdulla, SE (2006) The prevalence of parasites in commonly used leafy vegetables in South Western Saudi Arabia. Saudi Medical Journal 27, 613–616.Google ScholarPubMed
Alemu, G, Mama, M, Misker, D and Haftu, D (2019) Parasitic contamination of vegetables marketed in Arba Minch town, southern Ethiopia. BMC Infectious Diseases 19, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alhabbal, AT (2015) The prevalence of parasitic contamination on common sold vegetables in Alqalamoun region. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research 30, 94–97.Google Scholar
Ali, MA, Al-Herrawy, AZ and El-Hawaary, SE (2004) Detection of enteric viruses, Giardia and Cryptosporidium in two different types of drinking water treatment facilities. Water Research 38, 3931–3939.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al-Megrm, WA (2010) Prevalence of intestinal parasites in leafy vegetables in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Tropical Medicine 5, 20–23.Google Scholar
Amaechi, E, Ohaeri, C, Ukpai, O and Adegbite, RA (2016) Prevalence of parasitic contamination of salad vegetables in Ilorin, North Central, Nigeria. Momona Ethiopian Journal of Science 8, 136–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amahmid, O, Asmama, S and Bouhoum, K (1999) The effect of waste water reuse in irrigation on the contamination level of food crops by Giardia cysts and Ascaris eggs. International Journal of Food Microbiology 49, 19–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amoros, I, Alonso, JL and Cuesta, G (2010) Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts on salad products irrigated with contaminated water. Journal of Food Protection 73, 1138–1140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Avazpoor, M, Yousefipoor, M, Dusty, M, Mehdipour, M, Seifipour, F and Gholam, Z (2015) Determination of the level of parasitic infection (Cryptosporidium and Giardia) of the vegetables marketed in Ilam city. Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal 2, 37–40.Google Scholar
Bailenger, J (1962) Valeur comparée des méthodes d'enrichissement en coprologie parasitaire. Le Pharmacien Biologiste 3, 249–259.Google Scholar
Benti, G and Gemechu, F (2014) Parasitic contamination on vegetables irrigated with awash river in selected farms, Eastern Showa, Ethiopia. Journal of Parasitology and Vector Biology 5, 103–109.Google Scholar
Bethea, DA (2014) Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in Fresh Produce (Master of Science). University of Georgia.Google Scholar
Bukhari, Z (1995) Cryptosporidium infections in livestock and the significance of environmental contamination with oocysts. Doctoral dissertation, University of Strathclyde.Google Scholar
Calvo, M, Carazo, M, Arias, ML, Chaves, C, Monge, R and Chinchilla, M (2004) Prevalence of Cyclospora sp., Cryptosporidium sp., microsporidia and fecal coliform determination in fresh fruit and vegetables consumed in Costa Rica. Archivos latinoamericanos de nutricion 54, 428–432.Google ScholarPubMed
Chalmers, RM, Robinson, G, Elwin, K and Elson, R (2019) Analysis of the Cryptosporidium spp. and gp60 subtypes linked to human outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis in England and Wales, 2009 to 2017. Parasites and Vectors 12, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charron, DF, Thomas, MK, Waltner-Toews, D, Aramini, JJ, Edge, T, Kent, RA, Maarouf, AR and Wilson, J (2004) Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health – Part A 67, 1667–1677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, N, Paton, CA, Wilkinson, N, Nichols, RAB, Barker, K and Smith, HV (2006) Towards standard methods for the detection of Cryptosporidium parvum on lettuce and raspberries. Part 1: development and optimization of methods. International Journal of Food Microbiology 109, 215–221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daryani, A, Ettehad, GH, Sharif, M, Ghorbani, L and Ziaei, H (2008) Prevalence of intestinal parasites in vegetables consumed in Ardabil, Iran. Food Control 19, 790–794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixon, BR (2016) Parasitic illnesses associated with the consumption of fresh produce – an emerging issue in developed countries. Current Opinion in Food Science 8, 104–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
dos Morais, RAPB, Freire, ABC, Barbosa, DRL, da Silva, L de CT, Pinheiro, AF, da Costa, SS, de Ramos, FLP, Bichara, CNC, Lima, LJB and da Silva, AV (2016) Surto de toxoplasmose aguda no Município de Ponta de Pedras, Arquipélago do Marajó, Estado do Pará, Brasil: características clínicas, laboratoriais e epidemiológicas.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duedu, KO, Yarnie, EA, Tetteh-Quarcoo, PB, Attah, SK, Donkor, ES and Ayeh-Kumi, PF (2014) A comparative survey of the prevalence of human parasites found in fresh vegetables sold in supermarkets and open-aired markets in Accra, Ghana. BMC Research Notes 7, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dumètre, A and Dardé, ML (2005) Immunomagnetic separation of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts using a monoclonal antibody directed against the oocyst wall. Journal of Microbiological Methods 61, 209–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ekman, CCJ, do Chiossi, MFV, Meireles, LR, de Andrade, HF, Figueiredo, WM, Marciano, MAM and de Luna, EJA (2012) Case-control study of an outbreak of acute toxoplasmosis in an industrial plant in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo 54, 239–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El Said Said, D (2012) Detection of parasites in commonly consumed raw vegetables. Alexandria Journal of Medicine 48, 345–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El Sherbini, GT, Hany Kamel, NO, Geneedy, MR and Temsah, AG (2016) A comparative study of the occurrence of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts found on fresh fruits and vegetables sold in supermarkets and open-aired markets. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences 5, 760–768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eraky, MA, Rashed, SM, Nasr, MES, El-Hamshary, AMS and Salah El-Ghannam, A (2014) Parasitic contamination of commonly consumed fresh leafy vegetables in Benha, Egypt. Journal of Parasitology Research 2014. doi: 10.1155/2014/613960.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erdoǧrul, Ö and Şener, H (2005) The contamination of various fruit and vegetable with Enterobius vermicularis, Ascaris eggs, Entamoeba histolyca cysts and Giardia cysts. Food Control 16, 559–562.Google Scholar
Escotte-Binet, S, Da Silva, AM, Cancès, B, Aubert, D, Dubey, J, La Carbona, S, Villena, I and Poulle, ML (2019) A rapid and sensitive method to detect Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in soil samples. Veterinary Parasitology 274, 108904.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ezatpour, B, Chegeni, AS, Abdollahpour, F, Aazami, M and Alirezaei, M (2013) Prevalence of parasitic contamination of raw vegetables in Khorramabad, Iran. Food Control 34, 92–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fallah, AA, Pirali-Kheirabadi, K, Shirvani, F and Saei-Dehkordi, SS (2012) Prevalence of parasitic contamination in vegetables used for raw consumption in Shahrekord, Iran: influence of season and washing procedure. Food Control 25, 617–620.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fallah, AA, Makhtumi, Y and Pirali-Kheirabadi, K (2016) Seasonal study of parasitic contamination in fresh salad vegetables marketed in Shahrekord, Iran. Food Control 60, 538–542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization) (2012) Multicriteria-Based Ranking for Risk Management of Food-Borne Parasites.Google Scholar
Gabre, RM and Shakir, A (2016) Prevalence of some human enteroparasites in commonly consumed raw vegetables in Tabuk, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Food Protection 79, 655–658.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ganz, KR, Clime, L, Farber, JM, Corneau, N, Veres, T and Dixon, BR (2015) Enhancing the detection of Giardia duodenalis cysts in foods by inertial microfluidic separation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 81, 3925–3933.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gharpure, R, Perez, A, Miller, AD, Wikswo, ME, Silver, R and Hlavsa, MC (2019) Cryptosporidiosis outbreaks – United States, 2009–2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 68, 568–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hald, T, Aspinall, W, Devleesschauwer, B, Cooke, R, Corrigan, T, Havelaar, AH, Gibb, HJ, Torgerson, PR, Kirk, MD, Angulo, FJ, Lake, RJ, Speybroeck, N and Hoffmann, S (2016) World Health Organization estimates of the relative contributions of food to the burden of disease due to selected foodborne hazards: a structured expert elicitation. PLoS One 11, 1–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hassan, A, Farouk, H and Abdul-Ghani, R (2012) Parasitological contamination of freshly eaten vegetables collected from local markets in Alexandria, Egypt: a preliminary study. Food Control 26, 500–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hohweyer, J, Cazeaux, C, Travaillé, E, Languet, E, Dumètre, A, Aubert, D, Terryn, C, Dubey, JP, Azas, N, Houssin, M, Loïc, F, Villena, I and La Carbona, S (2016) Simultaneous detection of the protozoan parasites Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium and Giardia in food matrices and their persistence on basil leaves. Food Microbiology 57, 36–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hong, S, Kim, K, Yoon, S, Park, WY, Sim, S and Yu, JR (2014) Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in environmental soil and vegetables. Journal of Korean Medical Science 29, 1367–1371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ismail, Y (2016) Prevalence of parasitic contamination in salad vegetables collected from supermarkets and street vendors in Amman and Baqa'a – Jordan. Polish Journal of Microbiology 65, 201–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ISO 18744 (2016) Microbiology of the food chain – Detection and enumeration of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in fresh leafy green vegetables and berry fruits.Google Scholar
Istifanus, WA and Panda, SM (2018) Parasitic agents in fresh fruits and vegetables sold in open markets in Bauchi, Nigeria. Journal of Food Quality and Hazards Control 5, 84–88.Google Scholar
Kasper, MR, Lescano, AG, Lucas, C, Gilles, D, Biese, BJ, Stolovitz, G and Reaves, EJ (2012) Diarrhea outbreak during U.S. military training in El Salvador. PLoS One 7, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keserue, HA, Füchslin, HP, Wittwer, M, Nguyen-Viet, H, Nguyen, TT, Surinkul, N, Koottatep, T, Schürch, N and Egli, T (2012) Comparison of rapid methods for detection of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. (oo)cysts using transportable instrumentation in a field deployment. Environmental Science and Technology 46, 8952–8959.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumar, T, Onichandran, S, Lim, YAL, Sawangjaroen, N, Ithoi, I, Andiappan, H, Salibay, CC, Dungca, JZ, Chye, TT, Sulaiman, WYW, Lau, YL and Nissapatorn, V (2014) Comparative study on waterborne parasites between Malaysia and Thailand: a new insight. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 90, 682–689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lalle, M, Possenti, A, Dubey, JP and Pozio, E (2018) Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification-Lateral-Flow Dipstick (LAMP-LFD) to detect Toxoplasma gondii oocyst in ready-to-eat salad. Food Microbiology 70, 137–142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lalonde, LF and Gajadhar, AA (2016a) Optimization and validation of methods for isolation and real-time PCR identification of protozoan oocysts on leafy green vegetables and berry fruits. Food and Waterborne Parasitology 2, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lalonde, LF and Gajadhar, AA (2016b) Detection of Cyclospora cayetanensis, Cryptosporidium spp., and Toxoplasma gondii on imported leafy green vegetables in Canadian survey. Food and Waterborne Parasitology 2, 8–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larkin, EP, Tierney, JT, Lovett, J, Van Donsel, D, Francis, DW and Jackson, GJ (1978) Land application of sewage wastes: potential for contamination of foodstuffs and agricultural soils by viruses, bacterial pathogens and parasites. State of Knowledge in Land Treatment of Wastewater 2, 215–223.Google Scholar
Lass, A, Pietkiewicz, H, Szostakowska, B and Myjak, P (2012) The first detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in environmental fruits and vegetables samples. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 31, 1101–1108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lélu, M, Villena, I, Dardé, ML, Aubert, D, Geers, R, Dupuis, E, Marnef, F, Poulle, ML, Gotteland, C, Dumètre, A and Gilot-Fromonta, E (2012) Quantitative estimation of the viability of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in soil. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 78, 5127–5132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Le Quynh Chau, H, Thong, HT, Van Chao, N, Pham Hoang Son Hung, VVH, Van An, L, Fujieda, A, Ueru, T and Akamatsu, M (2014) Microbial and parasitic contamination on fresh vegetables sold in traditional markets in Hue city, Vietnam. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research 2, 959–964.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Losio, MN, Pavoni, E, Bilei, S, Bertasi, B, Bove, D, Capuano, F, Farneti, S, Blasi, G, Comin, D, Cardamone, C, Decastelli, L, Delibato, E, De Santis, P, Di Pasquale, S, Gattuso, A, Goffredo, E, Fadda, A, Pisanu, M and De Medici, D (2015) Microbiological survey of raw and ready-to-eat leafy green vegetables marketed in Italy. International Journal of Food Microbiology 210, 88–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macarisin, D, Bauchan, G and Fayer, R (2010) Spinacia oleracea L. leaf stomata harboring Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts: a potential threat to food safety. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 76, 555–559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maikai, BV, Elisha, IA and Baba-Onoja, EBT (2012) Contamination of vegetables sold in markets with helminth eggs in Zaria metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Food Control 28, 345–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maikai, BV, Baba-Onoja, EBT and Elisha, IA (2013) Contamination of raw vegetables with Cryptosporidium oocysts in markets within Zaria metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Food Control 31, 45–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marchioro, AA, Tiyo, BT, Colli, CM, De Souza, CZ, Garcia, JL, Gomes, ML and Falavigna-Guilherme, AL (2016) First detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in the fresh leafs of vegetables in South America. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 16, 624–626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, WA, Gardner, IA, Atwill, ER, Leutenegger, CM, Miller, MA, Hedrick, RP, Melli, AC, Barnes, NM and Conrad, PA (2006) Evaluation of methods for improved detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in mussels (Mytilus californianus). Journal of Microbiological Methods 65, 367–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohamed, MA, Siddig, EE, Elaagip, AH, Edris, AMM and Nasr, AA (2016) Parasitic contamination of fresh vegetables sold at central markets in Khartoum state, Sudan. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials 15, 5–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, JE, Millar, BC, Kenny, F, Lowery, CJ, Xiao, L, Rao, JR, Nicholson, V, Watabe, M, Heaney, N, Sunnotel, O, McCorry, K, Rooney, PJ, Snelling, WJ and Dooley, JSG (2007) Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in lettuce. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 42, 385–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nasser, AM, Tweto, E and Nitzan, Y (2007) Die-off of Cryptosporidium parvum in soil and wastewater effluents. Journal of Applied Microbiology 102, 169–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nazemi, S, Raei, M, Amiri, M and Chaman, R (2012) Parasitic contamination of raw vegetables in Shahroud, Semnan. Zahedan Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 14, 84–86.Google Scholar
Olyaei, A and Hajivandi, L (2013) Parasitological contamination of markets and farms in vegetables consumed in Southern Iran. Global Veterinaria 10, 327–331.Google Scholar
Omowaye, O and Audu, P (2012) Incidence and detection of parasitic infections by cyst and ova on fruits and vegetables from different major markets in Kogi, Nigeria. Journal of Applied and Natural Science 4, 42–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortega, YR and Sanchez, R (2010) Update on Cyclospora cayetanensis, a food-borne and waterborne parasite. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 23, 218–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pomares, C, Ajzenberg, D, Bornard, L, Bernardin, G, Hasseine, L, Darde, M-L and Marty, P (2011) Toxoplasmosis and horse meat, France. Emerging Infectious Diseases 17, 1327–1328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rahman, MJ, Islam Talukder, MA, Hossain, MF, Mahomud, MS, Atikul Islam, M and Shamsuzzoha, M (2014) Detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in commonly consumed fresh salad vegetables. American Journal of Microbiological Research 2, 224–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramirez-Martinez, ML, Olmos-Ortiz, LM, Barajas-Mendiola, MA, Giono Cerezo, S, Avila, EE and Cuellar-Mata, P (2015) A PCR procedure for the detection of Giardia intestinalis cysts and Escherichia coli in lettuce. Letters in Applied Microbiology 60, 517–523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ranjbar-Bahadori, S, Mostoophi, A and Shemshadi, B (2013) Study on Cryptosporidium contamination in vegetable farms around Tehran. Tropical Biomedicine 30, 193–198.Google Scholar
Robertson, LJ (2016) Food Hygiene and Toxicology in Ready-to-eat Foods. In Parasitic Protozoa in Salad Vegetables. New York: Elsevier Inc. pp. 69–88.Google Scholar
Robertson, LJ and Gjerde, B (2000) Isolation and enumeration of Giardia Cysts, Cryptosporidium oocysts, and Ascaris eggs from fruits and vegetables. Journal of Food Protection 63, 775–778.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, LJ and Gjerde, B (2001a) Occurrence of parasites on fruits and vegetables in Norway. Journal of Food Protection 64, 1793–1798.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, LJ and Gjerde, B (2001b) Factors affecting recovery efficiency in isolation of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from vegetables for standard method development. Journal of Food Protection 64, 1799–1805.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, LJ, Sprong, H, Ortega, YR, van der Giessen, JWB and Fayer, R (2014) Impacts of globalisation on foodborne parasites. Trends in Parasitology 30, 37–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, LJ, Temesgen, TT, Tysnes, KR and Eikås, JE (2019) An apple a day: an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in Norway associated with self-pressed apple juice. Epidemiology and Infection 147, 25–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rzezutka, A, Nichols, RAB, Connelly, L, Kaupke, A, Kozyra, I, Cook, N, Birrell, S and Smith, HV (2010) Cryptosporidium oocysts on fresh produce from areas of high livestock production in Poland. International Journal of Food Microbiology 139, 96–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saida, LA and Nooraldeen, KN (2014) Prevalence of parasitic stages in six leafy vegetables in markets of Erbil City, Kurdistan Region-Iraq. Zanco Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 26, 25–30.Google Scholar
Saki, J, Asadpoori, R and Khademvatan, S (2013) Prevalence of intestinal parasites in vegetables consumed in Ahvaz, South West of Iran. Journal of Medical Sciences (Faisalabad) 13, 488–492.Google Scholar
Shahnazi, M and Jafari-Sabet, M (2010) Prevalence of parasitic contamination of raw vegetables in villages of Qazvin Province, Iran. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease 7, 1025–1030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shapiro, K, Kim, M, Rajal, VB, Arrowood, MJ, Packham, A, Aguilar, B and Wuertz, S (2019) Simultaneous detection of four protozoan parasites on leafy greens using a novel multiplex PCR assay. Food Microbiology 84, 103252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, JM, Lee, MM and Murphy, HR (2012) Use of a common laboratory glassware detergent improves recovery of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cyclospora cayetanensis from lettuce, herbs and raspberries. International Journal of Food Microbiology 153, 123–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simon-Oke, IA, Afolabi, OJ and Obasola, OP (2014) Parasitic contamination of fruits and vegetables sold at Akure Metropolis, Ondo State, Nigeria. 6, 30–35.Google Scholar
Siyadatpanah, A, Tabatabaei, F, Zeydi, AE, Spotin, A, Fallah-Omrani, V, Assadi, M, Moradi, S, Rostami, A, Memari, F and Hajialiani, F (2013) Parasitic contamination of raw vegetables in Amol, North of Iran. Archives of Clinical Infectious Diseases 8. doi: 10.5812/archcid.15983.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sleman Ali, H, Mageed, SN, Khaniki, GRJ, Shariatifar, N, Yunesian, M, Rezaeian, M and Saleh, K (2018) Contamination of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in raw vegetables produced in Koya City, Iraq. Journal of Food Quality and Hazards Control 5, 89–93.Google Scholar
Tefera, T, Biruksew, A, Mekonnen, Z and Eshetu, T (2014) Parasitic contamination of fruits and vegetables collected from selected local markets of Jimma Town, Southwest Ethiopia. International Scholarly Research Notices 2014, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Umeche, N (1991) Parasite ova and cysts in fruits in Calabar, Nigeria. The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 12, 85–87.Google Scholar
Utaaker, KS, Huang, Q and Robertson, LJ (2015) A reduced-cost approach for analyzing fresh produce for contamination with Cryptosporidium oocysts and/or Giardia cysts. Food Research International 77, 326–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Utaaker, KS, Kumar, A, Joshi, H, Chaudhary, S and Robertson, LJ (2017) Checking the detail in retail: occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia on vegetables sold across different counters in Chandigarh, India. International Journal of Food Microbiology 263, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed