It has been noted that between 25 to 40 percent of students experience test anxiety (Cassady, Reference Cassady and Cassady2010). Students who experience high level of test anxiety are more likely to perform poorly academically (Jing, Reference Jing2007; Mondal, Ghosh, & Das, Reference Mondal, Ghosh and Das2013). For example, studies (e.g., Cassady & Johnson, Reference Cassady and Johnson2002; Chapell et al., Reference Chapell, Blanding, Silverstein, Takahashi, Newman, Gubi and McCann2005; Khalaila, Reference Khalaila2015) have shown that test anxiety is associated with low academic performance. However, little is known about the factors that can moderate the effect of test anxiety on academic performance (Barrows, Dunn, & Lloyd, Reference Barrows, Dunn and Lloyd2013). Achievement motivation has been suggested as a potential variable that may buffer the effect of test anxiety on academic performance (Ergene, Reference Ergene2011). Nevertheless, literature review in this area showed that the moderating role of achievement motivation in the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance has not been given adequate empirical attention.
In response to call for more empirical studies, especially on the moderators between test anxiety and academic performance (Ergene, Reference Ergene2011), the primary aim of the present study was to examined the moderating role of achievement motivation in the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance. The secondary aim is to further the study on test anxiety and academic performance using sample of undergraduates drawn from a developing country such as Nigeria.
Conducting the study amongst undergraduates in Nigeria is warranted, because studies in Nigeria (e.g., Akpan & Umobong, Reference Akpan and Umobong2013; Ogungbamila, Reference Ogungbamila2011; Olanipekun, Garuba, Kio, & Ohiemi, Reference Olanipekun, Garuba, Kio and Ohiemi2014) have noted that there is high rate of poor academic performance of students in public schools. Parents, teachers, school administrators, and government are showing serious concern over students’ poor academic performance (Akpan & Umobong, Reference Akpan and Umobong2013; Ogungbamila, Reference Ogungbamila2011). Their worries are becoming more intense as they realize that students’ performance in school may connect with their performance in real life (i.e., outside school) (Ogungbamila, Reference Ogungbamila2011). Previous studies in Nigeria have traced students’ poor academic performance to teachers-specific factors, school-related problems (Adeyemi, Reference Adeyemi2005a; Reference Adeyemib) and home front (Akpan & Umobong, Reference Akpan and Umobong2013). Yet, students’ academic performance in Nigeria has not improved to expectations (Olanipekun et al., Reference Olanipekun, Garuba, Kio and Ohiemi2014), suggesting the need for further studies.
However, it is worthy of note that while there is ample studies on test anxiety-academic performance link in developed countries (e.g., America and Europe), few studies (Adewuyi, Taiwo, & Olley, Reference Adewuyi, Taiwo and Olley2012; Akanbi Reference Akanbi2010; Akinsola & Nwajei, Reference Akinsola and Nwajei2013; Olatoye, Reference Olatoye2009; Onyeizugbo, Reference Onyeizugbo2010) have examined the role of test anxiety on academic performance in Nigeria. Besides, the few available studies focused more on secondary school students. This sample may limit generalization of their results to students in the universities. In addition, none of these previous studies considered the role of achievement motivation in the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance.
Currently, enhancing students’ academic performance is an explicit goal of Nigerian school reform. Therefore, in order to aid this reform, it would be crucial to understand psychological factors that influence students’ academic performance. Hence, this study examined the moderating role of achievement motivation in the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance among undergraduates in Nigeria. Findings of the study might have implication for theoretical extension and suggest interventions strategies that would improve the academic performance of undergraduates.
Test anxiety and academic performance
Test anxiety is a psychological condition in which people experience extreme distress, discomfort, and anxiety in testing situations (Akinsola & Nwajei, Reference Akinsola and Nwajei2013; Zeidner, Reference Zeidner1998). It is a feeling of worry, apprehension, nervousness or uneasiness that occurs when a student encounters test or examination in any form and at any level (Onyeizugbo, Reference Onyeizugbo2010). Test anxiety involves four main components; cognitive, emotionality, behavioral, and physical components (Zeidner, Reference Zeidner1998). The cognitive component is the mental activity that revolves around the testing situation. It constitutes elements such as thinking about consequences of failure, racing thoughts, negative and worrisome thoughts, problem in recalling facts, difficulty in reading and understanding questions etc. The emotionality component is characterized by tension, fear, apprehension, and nervousness towards test or examinations, which is usually associated with somatic symptoms such as palpitation, nausea, perspiration, headaches, stomach aches, nausea, diarrhea, excessive sweating, rapid heartbeat, dry mouth, and shortness of breath (Jing, Reference Jing2007; Oludipe Reference Oludipe2009; Sujit & Kavita, Reference Sujit and Kavita2006). The behavioral component involves fidgeting, feeling of restlessness etc., while the physical component is characterized by poor study skills, avoidance and procrastination of work and physical discomfort (Onyeizugbo, Reference Onyeizugbo2010).
Many factors contribute to the development of test anxiety, some of which are fear of failing, consistently thinking about consequences of failure, procrastination, poor study habit, inadequate of knowledge of course materials, consistent poor performance, past experiences and beliefs, and lack of confidence in one’s ability (McDonald, Reference McDonald2001; Sujit & Kavita, Reference Sujit and Kavita2006). Characteristics of the test environment such as the nature of the test, time constraints, examiner characteristics, mode of test administration and physical setting may also create test anxiety for students (Putwain, Woods, & Symes, Reference Putwain, Woods and Symes2010). Apart from that, research has shown that students’ personality dispositions may contribute to their development of test anxiety. For example, Hoferichter, Raufelder, and Eid (Reference Hoferichter, Raufelder and Eid2014) found that adolescents who are neurotics tend to experience high levels of test anxiety. This may be because neurotic individuals tend to perceived testing situation as more stressful than non-neurotic individuals.
Some degree of test anxiety is needed by students to succeed in academic endeavor. This is because minimal or moderate amount of anxiety helps the body to respond rapidly and efficiently (DePhil, Brilot, & Nettle, Reference DePhil, Brilot and Nettle2011; Simpson, Parker, & Harrison, Reference Simpson, Parker and Harrison1995). For example, Cassady and Johnson (Reference Cassady and Johnson2002) found that moderate cognitive test anxiety positively correlated with examination performance. It could therefore be said that unless a student demonstrate some degree of anxiety he/she may not prepare well for a test and perform adequately. Test anxiety, however, has debilitating effect, when it increases beyond optimal level (Onyeizugbo, Reference Onyeizugbo2010). This can weakens students’ preparation for test, making it difficult for them to comprehend relatively simple instructions, organize or recall relevant information, concentrate, and perform adequately (Cassady, Reference Cassady and Cassady2010; Rana & Mahmood, Reference Rana and Mahmood2010), and thus inhibit their academic performance.
Hebb’s (Reference Hebb1972) theory of arousal and Sarason’s (Reference Sarason1988) cognitive interference model provide insight on how test anxiety affects academic performance. Hebb’s (Reference Hebb1972) theory of arousal was an adaptation of Yerkes and Dodson law (Reference Yerkes and Dodson1908). This theory predicts a U-shaped function between arousal (anxiety) and performance, suggesting that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a certain point. Too much arousal (anxiety) hampers performance. Therefore, students whose arousal (anxiety) is above the optimal level will perform poorly academically. For instance, an optimal level of test anxiety can help a student focus on the test and remember the information that he/she studied, however, too much test anxiety can impair his/her ability to concentrate and remember the correct answers.
Cognitive interference model posit that anxiety present in testing situations may affect test performance. Ordinarily, testing situations are not stressful situations. Test anxiety only emerges as a result of an individual’s subjective evaluation of the test situation as stressful (Hoferichter, Reference Hoferichter2016; Richter, Reference Richter2009). Individuals who cognitively evaluate testing situation as very stressful may become highly anxious during tests and typically perform more poorly on tests than low test-anxious persons due to forgetfulness. Feelings of forgetfulness are developed because test anxiety produces interference between relevant responses and irrelevant responses generated from the person’s anxious state. The difference in performance of a high test-anxious student and a low test-anxious student is largely due to the difference in their ability to focus and pay attention on the test (Ossai, Reference Ossai2011). While a low test-anxious student is able to focus and pay greater attention on test, a high test-anxious student focused on internal self and the anxiety they are feeling. Therefore, high test-anxious students would perform poorly academically on a test because their attention is usually divided between themselves and the test.
There is broad agreement in the literature that test anxiety is associated with lower academic performance. For example, Chapell et al. (Reference Chapell, Blanding, Silverstein, Takahashi, Newman, Gubi and McCann2005) found an inverse relationship between test anxiety and academic performance. Syokwaa, Aloka, and Ndunge (Reference Syokwaa, Aloka and Ndunge2014) reported that high test anxiety decreases students’ academic achievement in Kenya. Barrows et al. (Reference Barrows, Dunn and Lloyd2013) reported a negative relationship between test anxiety and academic achievement. It was found that a significant negative relationship exists between test anxiety and students’ achievement scores in Pakistan (Rana & Mahmood, Reference Rana and Mahmood2010). In Nigeria, Adewuyi et al. (Reference Adewuyi, Taiwo and Olley2012) found that secondary students with high anxiety performed poorly academically than those with low anxiety. Similarly, Akanbi (Reference Akanbi2010) reported that high test anxiety reduced secondary school students’ academic performance in science. Despite the contributions of these previous studies, they paid less attention to the moderating role of achievement motivation in the relationship of test anxiety and academic performance. The direct and moderating role of achievement motivation in the relationship of test anxiety and performance is being reviewed in the following section.
Achievement motivation: Direct and moderating roles
The need and desire of individuals both have a strong impact on the direction of his behavior. Motivation is based on one’s achievement-related goals (Elliot & McGregor, Reference Elliot and McGregor2001). There are different forms of motivation including extrinsic, intrinsic, physiological, and achievement motivation (Mondal, Ghosh, & Das, Reference Mondal, Ghosh and Das2013). Achievement motivation can be defined as the need for success or the attainment of excellence (Mondal et al., Reference Mondal, Ghosh and Das2013). It is an individual desire for significant accomplishment, mastering of skills, control, or high standards. Achievement motivation is a desire to complete a task according to perfection criteria (Erdoğan, Kesici, & Sahin, Reference Erdoğan, Kesici and Sahin2011). For instance, outperforming other rivals, reaching or obtaining a difficult goal, solving a complex problem and improving skills, show the need for achievement. Individuals with high achievement motivation take reasonable risks, prefer tasks that are challenging, reach inner satisfaction stemming from their successes, and do not tend to care for anything except their tasks (Erdoğan et al., Reference Erdoğan, Kesici and Sahin2011).
High achievement motivation has been associated with strong drive to work with diligence and vitality, to constantly steer toward targets, to obtain dominance in challenging and difficult tasks, and create a sense of achievement as a result (Awan, Noureen, & Naz, Reference Awan, Noureen and Naz2011). In contrast, low achievement motivation is thought to be associated with a sense of low competence, low expectations, and orientation toward failure (Elliot & McGregor, Reference Elliot and McGregor2001; Erdoğan et al., Reference Erdoğan, Kesici and Sahin2011).
Muola (Reference Muola2010) observes that achievement motivation is one of the factors that contribute to academic success. This may be because achievement motivation is an effective arousal state which directs the human behavior for successful participation in competition (Mondal et al., Reference Mondal, Ghosh and Das2013). Most researches on achievement motivation have supported that students with a higher need to achieve perform significantly better than those with a lower need to achieve (Verkuyten, Thijs, & Canatan, Reference Verkuyten, Thijs and Canatan2001). For example, Awan et al. (Reference Awan, Noureen and Naz2011) found that achievement motivation increases secondary school students’ achievement in English and Mathematics. Steinmayr and Spinath (Reference Steinmayr and Spinath2009) also found that achievement motivation explained unique variance in general school performance amongst a sample of 342 German students. However, Affum-osei, Eric, Barnie, and Forkuoh (Reference Affum-osei, Eric, Barnie and Forkuoh2014) and Ergene (Reference Ergene2011) found no significant relationship between achievement motivation and academic achievement.
Also, there is a close relationship between achievement motivation and anxiety. In a study, Khan, Haider, Ahmed, and Khan (Reference Khan, Haider, Ahmed and Khan2011) reported a negative relationship between achievement motivation and anxiety. Kesici and Erdoğan (Reference Kesici and Erdoğan2010) found that achievement motivation reduces students’ mathematics anxiety level in Turkey. Similarly, Erdoğan et al. (Reference Erdoğan, Kesici and Sahin2011) reported that achievement motivation had a negative impact on math anxiety. Khalaila (Reference Khalaila2015) found that nursing students with high intrinsic motivation experienced low level of test anxiety. Individuals with high achievement motivation may experience low level of anxiety because they have high self-confidence, are highly focused, calm, bold, and have high determination to surpass high standards of excellence in competitive task (Mondal et al., Reference Mondal, Ghosh and Das2013). However, achievement motivation may also increase students’ level of test anxiety. For example, high achievement expectations may lead to high performance standards which may consequently culminate in high levels of anxiety in face of evaluation. Achievement motivation may produce emotional conflict between striving for success and avoiding failure (Covington, Reference Covington, McInerney and van Etten2004), and thus give rise to experiences of high level of anxiety during test.
Whereas, it has been suggested that achievement motivation is capable of moderating the effect of test anxiety on academic performance (Ergene, Reference Ergene2011), this has received little or no empirical attention on the pattern of the relationship. Based on the pattern of relationship between anxiety, achievement motivation, and performance in literature (Khalaila, Reference Khalaila2015), we expect that achievement motivation will moderate the impact of test anxiety on academic performance by draining negative feelings and emotions of test anxiety away instead of allowing them to have overbearing control on the students’ academic performance. For instance, a student who experiences high test anxiety is likely to have a low/poor academic performance (Erdoğan et al., Reference Erdoğan, Kesici and Sahin2011). However, the effect of test anxiety on academic performance may reduce or become insignificant, if the students have high achievement motivation. Against this background, the following hypotheses were tested.
Hypothesis 1: Test anxiety will have a negative impact on academic performance.
Hypothesis 2: Achievement motivation will have a positive impact on academic performance.
Hypothesis 3: Achievement motivation will significantly moderate the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance.
Method
Research design
This was an ex-post facto research. Test anxiety is the independent variable, academic performance is the dependent variable and achievement motivation is the moderating variable.
Participants
The participants comprised 393 (192 males and 201 females) undergraduates. They were selected from Adekunle Ajasin University in Ondo State, Nigeria using a purposive sampling technique. The participants were selected from Faculty of Art, Faculty of Science and Faculty of Social and Management Sciences. These Faculties were randomly selected for this study using a simple (balloting) random sampling technique. The ages of the participants ranged between 17 and 31 years (M = 20.41, SD = 3.57). Regarding their academic level, 100 (25.4%) were in 100 Level, 98 (24.9%) were in 200 Level, 91 (23.1%) were in 300 Level while, 104 (26.4%) were in 400 Level.
Measures
Demographic characteristics
Relevant data were gathered through the use of a validated questionnaire with four sections. The first section of the questionnaire elicited participants’ socio-demographic information such as age, gender, academic level, and faculty. In the second section, the participants’ were asked to indicate their current Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA), which were further verified from their various departments. The third and forth sections contained measures of test anxiety and achievement motivation.
Test anxiety
This was measured using a 20-item Test Anxiety Behavior Scale (STABS) developed by Suinn (Reference Suinn1969). The scale was rated on a Likert format scale with responses ranging from ‘Not at all’ (1) to ‘very much’ (5). Oladipo and Ogungbamila (Reference Oladipo and Ogungbamila2013) obtained a Cronbach’s alpha of .86 among Nigerian sample. A Cronbach’s alpha of .77 was obtained in the present study. High score implies high test anxiety while low score indicate low test anxiety.
Achievement motivation
This was measured using a 20-item achievement motivation scale developed by Ray (Reference Ray1981). The scale used single words rather than sentence items to measured achievement motivation. The response format of the scale ranged from 1 = Yes; 2 = ?; 3 = No. Ray (Reference Ray1981) reported a reliability coefficient of .87 and validity value of .41. A Cronbach’s alpha of .69 was obtained in the presented study. High score indicates high achievement motivation while low score indicate low achievement motivation.
Procedure
The study took place at Adekunle Ajasin University in Ondo State, Nigeria. Proximity, convenience, and heterogeneity of students informed the choice of this setting. Questionnaires were administered to the students using purposive sampling technique after a good rapport and the purpose of the research had been explained to them by the researcher and his two research assistants. Respondents were informed that participation was voluntary and that the data obtained would be analyzed in a group format. Confidential treatment and anonymity of information were also assured. The participants were also told that there was no right or wrong answer and as such should be honest in their responses. Four hundred (400) questionnaires were administered to students that consented. Three hundred and ninety five (395) were retrieved but only 393 were duly completed and valid for the analysis, yielding a response rate of 98.7%.
Data analysis
The Pearson r correlation statistics was used to establish the relationships between the study variables. The study hypotheses were tested using moderated hierarchical multiple regression analysis. All analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program version 17.
Results
The results of the correlational analyses of the variables are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Mean, Standard Deviation, Inter-variable Correlations
* correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed).
As shown in Table 1, test anxiety had a significant negative relationship with academic performance (r(391) = –.24; p < .05). This implies that as undergraduates test anxiety level increases, their academic performance decreases. However, achievement motivation had a significant positive relationship with academic performance (r(391) = .35, p < .01), suggesting that undergraduates who have high achievement motivation are likely to have high academic performance.
The moderated hierarchical multiple regression procedure of Cohen and Cohen (Reference Cohen and Cohen1983) was used to test the moderating role of achievement of motivation in the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance. The regression analysis constituted two models. In model 1, the predictor (test anxiety) and moderating variable (achievement motivation) were entered simultaneously in order to determine their unique effect on academic performance. In model 2, the cross-product term of test anxiety and achievement motivation was entered in order to test the significance interaction term. The results are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Moderated Hierarchical Regression Analysis Showing the Moderating Role of Achievement Motivation in the Relationship between Test Anxiety and Academic Performance
* correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed).
As shown in model 1, regressing academic performance on test anxiety and achievement motivation yielded a significant joint prediction (F = 20.96, p < .05; R 2 = .19), indicating that the change in academic performance is explained by 19% resulting from changes in the variables. The results also reveal the unique contribution of each of variables on academic performance. Test anxiety significantly predicted academic performance (β = –.23; t = –5.97; p < .05). This suggests that undergraduates who experience higher level of test anxiety are likely to perform poorly academically. Achievement motivation also significantly predicted academic performance (β = .38; t = 8.54; p < .05), such that undergraduates who have high achievement motivation were more likely to perform better academically. With these results, hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported.
In model 2, the interaction term between test anxiety and achievement motivation on academic performance yielded a significant equation (β = .10; p < .01). That is, achievement motivation and test anxiety interacted to influence academic performance. Thus, it implies that achievement motivation significantly moderated the effect of test anxiety on academic performance. This suggests that high test-anxious undergraduates who have high achievement motivation are more likely to perform well academically. This results supported hypothesis 3.
Discussion
This study investigated the moderating role of achievement motivation in the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance among a sample of undergraduates in Nigeria. Findings of the study showed that undergraduates who experience high test anxiety were more likely to have low academic performance. This result is in concordance with findings by Akanbi (Reference Akanbi2010), Chapell et al. (Reference Chapell, Blanding, Silverstein, Takahashi, Newman, Gubi and McCann2005), and Onyeizugbo (Reference Onyeizugbo2010); they found that high levels of test anxiety is associated with lower academic performance. This finding lends support to Hebb’s (Reference Hebb1972) theory of arousal and cognitive interference model (Sarason, Reference Sarason1988). The theories assert that test taker whose test anxiety level is above the optimal level are likely to forget what they have read, which in turn decrease their performance. Forgetfulness is developed because test anxiety produces interference between relevant responses and irrelevant responses generated from the person’s anxious state (Sarason, Reference Sarason1988).
One possible explanation for this finding is that undergraduates who experience high levels of test anxiety tend to experience negative physiological reactions such as increase heartbeat, excessive sweating, dizziness, headaches, high blood pressure, and nausea (Zeidner, Reference Zeidner1998). Fidgeting, fear, tension, excessive worry, feeling of wanting to cry, hopelessness, and restlessness are also likely to be present (Oladipo & Ogungbamila, Reference Oladipo and Ogungbamila2013; Zeidner, Reference Zeidner1998). All these might weaken students body system (Simpson et al., Reference Simpson, Parker and Harrison1995) and make it difficult for them to prepare well, comprehend relatively simple instructions, organize or recall relevant information, concentrate, and perform adequately during tests (Onyeizugbo, Reference Onyeizugbo2010; Rana & Mahmood, Reference Rana and Mahmood2010),
The results of the study also indicated that achievement motivation has a positive impact on academic performance. This implies that undergraduates with high achievement motivation are more likely to have better academic performance. This result agrees with the findings of Verkuyten et al. (Reference Verkuyten, Thijs and Canatan2001). Their findings revealed that adolescents’ with higher achievement motivation had higher academic performance than their counterparts with low achievement motivation. The result also support the findings by Awan et al. (Reference Awan, Noureen and Naz2011), Kesici and Erdoğan (Reference Kesici and Erdoğan2010), and Khan et al. (Reference Khan, Haider, Ahmed and Khan2011) and Steinmayr and Spinath (Reference Steinmayr and Spinath2009) who reported a positive relationship between achievement motivation and academic performance.
Students who have high achievement motivation have strong drive to work with diligence and vitality, to constantly steer toward targets, to outperform other students, and to surpass high standards of excellence (Awan et al., Reference Awan, Noureen and Naz2011). They also have strong desires to excel in what they do, reach or obtain a difficult goal, solve complex tasks, improve and master skills, and create a sense of achievement (Erdoğan et al., Reference Erdoğan, Kesici and Sahin2011). These features may motivate them to perform adequately or significantly better academically than their counterparts who lack achievement motivation.
Lastly, results of the present study show that achievement motivation significantly moderates the negative relationship between test anxiety and academic performance. This implies that high test-anxious undergraduates who have high achievement motivation are more likely to perform significantly better academically. This is not surprising giving the fact that achievement motivated students seem to be highly confident, consistent, and focus especially in the presence of challenging and stressful task (Mondal et al., Reference Mondal, Ghosh and Das2013). Their (i.e., achievement motivated students) aim is to master skills in performing a task, excel at all cost, outperform other rivals, and surpass standards of excellence (Erdoğan et al., Reference Erdoğan, Kesici and Sahin2011). All of these may reduce the effect of test anxiety on their performance in school.
Based on the findings of the present study, it was concluded that undergraduates who experience high levels of test anxiety are more likely to perform poorly academically. However, undergraduates with high test anxiety who have high achievement motivation are more likely to perform adequately. This implies that achievement motivation is an important factor that moderates the effects of test anxiety on academic performance amongst undergraduates.
These findings have practical and theoretical implications. Practically, the findings suggest that university management should design appropriate psycho-educational interventions that would reduce test anxiety and enhance achievement motivation. Parents can also play vital roles in enhancing their children achievement motivation from the home front especially during adolescence. During the period of adolescence, students’ learning and performance motivation should be encouraged by parents. This is because, it is during this time that important career chances are being built and students are being confronted with pubertal changes related to a shift of interests and values that could lead to a decrease in achievement motivation.
Theoretically, the findings of the study lend support to Hebb’s theory of arousal and cognitive interference model (Sarason, Reference Sarason1988). The finding further validates the models by showing that undergraduates (in a developing country such as Nigeria) who experience higher levels of test anxiety are more likely to perform poorly academically due to the interference of worrisome thoughts and emotions. However, that achievement motivation significantly moderates the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance among undergraduates calls for theoretical extension.
Nevertheless, the findings of the current study should be generalized with caution because the sample size and spread did not adequately represent universities in Nigeria. Moreover, undergraduates in private university were not captured in this study. The cross-sectional nature of the data also calls into question any inferences that could be made from findings of this study. It is important to also note that this study only analyzed manifest and not latent variables. Though the alpha of the instruments was satisfactory, further research on test anxiety should use a scale that includes the four–factor dimensions e.g., worry, emotionality, interference, and lack of confidence (Hoferichter, Raufelder, Ringeisen, Rohrmann, & Bukowski, Reference Hoferichter, Raufelder, Ringeisen, Rohrmann and Bukowski2015). Another limitation of this study is that the scales used are from past decades. Future research should use more recent scales or develop new ones that would suit their present environment. Using a larger sample, future studies should also examine more moderating variables (e.g., emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, affectivity). This should be tested using a longitudinal design.
