Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-qdpjg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-16T01:38:28.413Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Diversification of the Amniotes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 July 2017

Jacques A. Gauthier
Jacques A. Gauthier*
Affiliation:
Department of Herpetology, California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California 94118-9661
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Publication of the English-language version of Hennig's (1966) Phylogenetic Systematics marked a turning point in the history of inquiry into the genealogy of life. Hennig catalyzed a long overdue reevaluation of systematic theory and method that should have followed immediately upon publication of Darwin's revolutionary ideas (de Queiroz, 1988). Hennig revitalized the field by taking the Theory of Descent to the core of systematics (de Queiroz, 1988, 1992)—the methods for investigating life's genealogy—and taxonomy—the methods for communicating the results of those investigations (de Queiroz and Gauthier, 1992). Unfortunately, the Darwinian revolution has yet to sweep aside all vestiges of nonevolutionary thinking in this field. To further that goal, and to provide an update of Gauthier et al. (1989), this contribution summarizes current progress in the phylogeny and taxonomy of the major clades of land-egg-laying, or amniote, vertebrates.

Type
Research Article
Information
Short Courses in Paleontology , Volume 7: Major Features of Vertebrate Evolution , 1994 , pp. 129 - 159
Copyright
Copyright © 1994 Paleontological Society 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arcucci, A. 1990. Un nuevo Proterochampsidae (Reptilia–Archosauriformes) de la fauna local de los Chanares (Triasico Medio), La Rioja, Argentina. Ameghiana, 27(3–4): 365–378.Google Scholar
Arnold, E.N. 1990. Why do morphological phylogenies vary in quality? An investigation based on the comparative history of lizard clades. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 240:135–172.Google ScholarPubMed
Benton, M.J. 1983. The Triassic reptile Hyperodapedon from Elgin: functional morphology and relationships. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 302(B): 605–717.Google Scholar
Benton, M.J. 1985. Classification and phylogeny of the diapsid reptiles. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 84: 97–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benton, M.J. 1987a. Mass extinctions among families of non-marine tetrapods: the data. Memoire Societé Geologique de France, 150: 21–37.Google Scholar
Benton, M.J. 1987b. Progress and competition in macroevolution. Biological Reviews, 62: 305–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benton, M.J. 1990. Phylogeny of the major tetrapod groups: morphological data and divergence dates. Journal of Molecular Evolution, 30:409–424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benton, M.J., 1991. Extinction, biotic replacements, and clade interactions, p. 89–102 In The unity of evolutionary biology, Dudley, E.C. (ed.). Dioscorides Press, Oregon.Google Scholar
Benton, M.J., and Clark, J.M. 1988. Archosaur phylogeny and the relationships of the Crocodylia, p. 295–338 In The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods, Vol. 1: Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds. Benton, M. J. (ed.). Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Berman, D.S., Sumida, S.S., and Lombard, R.E. 1992. Reinterpretation of sutural patterns of the temporal and occipital regions in Diadectes and the relationships of diadectomorphs. Journal of Paleontology, 66:499–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brinkman, D. 1980a. Structural correlates of tarsal and metatarsal functioning in Iguana (Lacertilia: Iguanidae) and other lizards. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 58(2): 277–289.Google Scholar
Brinkman, D. 1980b. The hind limb step cycle of Caiman sclerops and the mechanics of the crocodile tarsus and metatarsus. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 58(12): 2187–2200.Google Scholar
Brinkman, D. 1981a. The hind limb step cycle of Iguana and primitive reptiles. Journal of Zoology, London, 193:91–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brinkman, D. 1981b. The origin of the crocodiloid tarsi and the interrelationships of thecodontian reptiles. Breviora, 464: 1–23.Google Scholar
Calzavara, M., Muscio, G., and Wild, R. 1980. Megalancosaurus preonensis n. g., n. sp., a new reptile from the Norian of Friuli. Gortania, Museo Friulano Storia Naturale, 2 :49–54.Google Scholar
Campbell, J.W., Vorhaben, J.E., and Smith, D.D. 1987. Uricotely: its nature and origin during the evolution of tetrapod vertebrates. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 243: 349–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrier, D.R. 1987. The evolution of locomotor stamina in tetrapods: circumventing a mechanical constraint. Paleobiology 13(3): 326–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, R.L., 1964. The earliest reptiles. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 45: 61–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, R.L., 1969. A middle Pennsylvanian captorhinomorph and the interrelationships of primitive reptiles. Journal of Paleontology, 43:151–170.Google Scholar
Carroll, R.L., 1975. Permo-Triassic “lizards” from the Karroo. Palaeontographica Africana, 18: 17–87.Google Scholar
Carroll, R.L., 1977. The origin of lizards. p. 359–396 In Problems in Vertebrate Evolution. Andrews, S. M., Miles, R., and Walker, A. (eds.), Linnean Society of London, Symposium Series 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Carroll, R.L., 1981. Plesiosaur ancestors from the upper Permian of Madagascar. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (B) 293 (1066): 315–383.Google Scholar
Carroll, R.L., 1988. Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, 698 p.Google Scholar
Carroll, R.L., and Baird, D. 1972. Carboniferous stem-reptiles of the family Romeriidae. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 143:321–363.Google Scholar
Clark, J. M., Welman, J., Gauthier, J.A., and Parrish, J. M. 1993. The laterosphenoid bone of early archosauriforms. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 13(1): 48–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cocude-Michel, M. 1963. Les Rhynchocephales et les Sauriens des calcaires lithographiques (Jurassic Superieure) d'Europe occidentale. Nouvelles Archives de Museé de Histoire Naturelle de Lyon 7: 1–187.Google Scholar
Colbert, E.H. 1970. The Triassic gliding reptile Icarosaurus . Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 143: 85–142.Google Scholar
Cracraft, J. 1988. The major clades of birds. p. 339–361 In The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods, vol. 1: Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds. Benton, M.J. (ed.), Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Cruickshank, A.R.I. 1972. The proterosuchian thecodonts. p. 89–119 In Studies in Vertebrate Evolution. Joysey, K.A. and Kemp, T.S. (eds.). Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Currie, P.J. 1982. The osteology and relationships of Tangasaurus mennelli Haughton (Reptilia: Eosuchia). Annals of the South African Museum, 86: 247–265.Google Scholar
Donoghue, M.S. 1985. A critique of the biological species concept and recommendations for a phylogenetic alternative. Bryologist, 88(3): 172–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donoghue, M.S., Doyle, J.A., Gauthier, J.A., Kluge, A.G., and Rowe, T. 1989. The importance of fossils in phylogeny reconstruction. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 20:431–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ernisse, D.J., and Kluge, A.G. 1993. Taxonomic congruence versus total evidence, and amniote phylogeny inferred from fossils, molecules, and morphology. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 10(6): 1170–1195.Google Scholar
Estes, R. 1983. Sauria terrestria, Amphisbaenia. p. 1–249 In Handbuch der Paläontologie, Vol. 10 Wellnhofer, A. P. (ed.). Fischer, Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Estes, R., De Queiroz, K., and Gauthier, J. 1988. Phylogenetic relationships within Squamata. p. 119–281. In The phylogenetic relationships of the lizard families: essays commemorating Charles L. Camp. Estes, R., and Pregill, G.K. (eds.), Stanford University Press, Palo Alto.Google Scholar
Evans, S.E. 1980. The skull of a new eosuchian reptile from the Lower Jurassic of South Wales. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 70: 203–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, S.E. 1981. The postcranial skeleton of the Lower Jurassic eosuchian Gephyrosaurus bridensis . Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 73: 81–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, S.E. 1986. The braincase of Prolacerta broomi (Reptilia: Triassic). Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen, 173:181–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, S.E. 1987. The phylogeny of Prolacertiformes. p. 76–81. In Fourth Symposium on Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Short Papers. Currie, P.M. and Koster, E.H. (eds.)Google Scholar
Evans, S.E. 1988. The early history and relationships of the Diapsida. p. 221–260. In The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods, vol. 1: Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds. Benton, M.J. (ed.), Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Evans, S.E. 1990. The skull of Cteniogenys, a choristodere (Reptilia: Archosauromorpha) form the Middle Jurassic of Oxfordshire. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 99: 205–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, S.E. 1991. A new lizard-like reptile (Diapsida: Lepidosauromorpha) from the Middle Jurassic of England. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 103(4): 391–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, S.E., and Haubold, H. 1987. A review of the Upper Permian genera Coelurosauravus, Weigeltisaurus, and Gracilisaurus (Reptilia: Diapsida). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 90:275–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewer, R.F. 1965. The anatomy of the thecodont reptile Euparkeria capensis Broom. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B. 248: 379–435.Google Scholar
Fox, H. 1977. The urinogenital system. p. 1–157, In Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 6 (Morphology E). Gans, C. and Parsons, T.E., (eds.). Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Fraser, N., and Benton, M.J. 1989. The Triassic reptiles Brachyrhinodon and Polysphenodon and the relationships of the sphenodontids. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 96:413–445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frey, E. 1984. Aspects of the biomechanics of crocodilian terrestrial locomotion. p. 93–97. In Third Symposium on Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Short Papers. Reif, W.-E. and Westphal, F. (eds.), ATTEMPTO Verlag, Tübingen.Google Scholar
Gaffney, E., and McKenna, M.C. 1979. A Late Permian captorhinid from Rhodesia. American Museum Novitates, 2688:1–15.Google Scholar
Gaffney, E., and Meylan, P. 1988. A phylogeny of turtles. p. 157–219, In The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods, vol. 1: Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds. Benton, M.J. (ed.), Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Gabe, M. 1970. The adrenal. Pp. 263–318 In Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 3 (Morphology C). Gans, C. and Parsons, T.E., (eds.). Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Gans, C. 1978. The characteristics and affinities of the Amphisbaenia. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London, 34: 347–416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gatesy, S.M. 1990. Caudofemoral musculature and the evolution of theropod locomotion. Paleobiology 16(2): 170–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gatesy, S.M. 1991. Hind limb movement of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) and postural grades. Journal of Zoology, London, 224:577–588.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gauthier, J. 1984. A cladistic analysis of the higher systematic categories of the Diapsida. University Microfilms, International, Ann Arbor. No. 85–12825, 564 p.Google Scholar
Gauthier, J. 1986. Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds. Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences, 8:1–56.Google Scholar
Gauthier, J., Cannatella, D., De Queiroz, K., Kluge, A.G., and Rowe, T. 1989. Tetrapod phylogeny. p. 337–353. In The Hierarchy of Life. Fernholm, B., Bremer, K., and Jornvall, H. (eds.), Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Gauthier, J., Kluge, A.G., and Rowe, T. 1988a. Amniote phylogeny and the importance of fossils. Cladistics, 4: 105–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gauthier, J., Kluge, A.G., and Rowe, T. 1988b. The early evolution of the Amniota. Pp. 103–155. In The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods, vol. 1: Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds. Benton, M.J. (ed.), Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Gauthier, J., Estes, R., and De Queiroz, K. 1988c. A phylogenetic analysis of Lepidosauromorpha. p. 15–98. In The phylogenetic relationships of the lizard families: essays commemorating Charles L. Camp. Estes, R., and Pregill, G.K. (eds.), Stanford University Press, Palo Alto.Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. 1981. Categories, life, and thinking. Behavioral and Brain Science, 4: 269–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gow, C. 1972. The osteology and relationships of the Millerettidae (Reptilia: Cotylosauria). Journal of Zoology, London, 167:219–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gow, C. 1975. The morphology and relationships of Youngina capensis Broom and Prolacerta broomi Parrington. Palaeontographica Africana, 18: 89–131.Google Scholar
Gregory, J.T. 1945. Osteology and relationships of Trilophosaurus . University of Texas Publications, 4401: 273–359.Google Scholar
Heaton, M.J. 1980. The Cotylosauria: a reconsideration of a group of archaic tetrapods. p. 497–551 In The terrestrial environment and the origin of land vertebrates. Panchen, A.L. (ed.). Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Heaton, M.J., and Reisz, R.R. 1986. Phylogenetic relationships of captorhinomorph reptiles. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 23:402–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hennig, W. 1966. Phylogenetic Systematics. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 263 p.Google Scholar
Jenkins, F.A., Dial, K.P., and Goslow, G.E. 1988. A cineradiographic analysis of bird flight: the wishbone in starlings is a spring. Science, 241:1495–1498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kluge, A.G. 1989. A concern for evidence and a phylogenetic hypothesis of relationships among Epicrates (Boidae, Serpentes). Systematic Zoology, 38: 7–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laurin, M. 1991. The osteology of a Lower Permian eosuchian from Texas and a review of diapsid phylogeny. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 101(1): 59–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laurin, M., and Reisz, R.R. 1994. A reevaluation of early amniote phylogeny. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, (in press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, M.S.Y. 1993. The origin of the turtle body plan: bridging a famous morphological gap. Science, 261:1716–1720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lombard, R.E., and Sumida, S.S. 1992. Recent progress in understanding early tetrapods. American Zoologist, 32: 609–622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maderson, P.F.A. 1972. When? Why? and How? Some speculations on the evolution of the vertebrate integument. American Zoologist, 12:159–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moss, M.L. 1972. The vertebrate dermis and the integumental skeleton. American Zoologist, 12: 27–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norell, M.A., and Novacek, M.J. 1992. Congruence between superpositional and phylogenetic patterns: comparing cladistic patterns with fossil records. Cladistics, 8: 319–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Novas, F.E. 1989. The tibia and tarsus in the Herrerasauridae (Dinosauria, incertae sedis) and the origin and evolution of the dinosaurian tarsus. Journal of Paleontology, 63: 677–690.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Novas, F.E. 1993. New information on the systematics and postcranial skeleton of Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis (Theropoda: Herrerasauridae) from the Ischigualasto Formation (Upper Triassic) of Argentina. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 13(4): 400–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panchen, A.L., and Smithson, T.R. 1988. The relationships of the earliest tetrapods. p. 1–32. In The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods, vol. 1: Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds. Benton, M.J. (ed.), Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Parrish, J.M. 1992. Phylogeny of the Erythrosuchidae. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 12: 93–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parrish, J.M. 1993. Phylogeny of the Crocodylotarsi, with reference to archosaurian and crurotarsan monophyly. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 13(3): 287–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, C. 1981. Significance of fossils in determining evolutionary relationships. Annual Reviews of Ecology and Systematics, 12:195–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Queiroz, K. 1988. Systematics and the Darwinian revolution. Philosophy of Science, 55: 238–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Queiroz, K. 1992. Phylogenetic definitions and taxonomic philosophy. Biological Philosophy, 7: 295–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Queiroz, K., and Gauthier, J. 1990. Phylogeny as a central principle in taxonomy: phylogenetic definitions of taxon names. Systematic Zoology, 39: 307–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Queiroz, K., and Gauthier, J. 1992. Phylogenetic taxonomy. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 23: 449–480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Queiroz, K., and Gauthier, J. 1994. Toward a phylogenetic system of biological nomenclature. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 9(1): 27–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radinsky, L.B., 1987. The Evolution of Vertebrate Design. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 188 p.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reisz, R.R. 1981. A diapsid reptile from the Pennsylvanian of Kansas. Special Publications of the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, 7:1–74.Google Scholar
Reisz, R.R. 1986. Pelycosauria. p. 1–102. In Handbuch der Paläontologie. Wellnhofer, P. (ed.). 17: 1–102. Fischer, Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Reisz, R.R. 1988. Two small reptiles from a Late Pennsylvanian quarry near Hamilton, Kansas, p. 189–194. In Regional geology and paleontology of upper Paleozoic Hamilton quarry area. Schultze, H.-P. (ed.). Kansas Geological Society Guidebook Series 6:189–194.Google Scholar
Reisz, R.R., and Baird, D. 1983. Captorhinomorph “stem” reptiles from the Pennsylvanian coalswamp deposit of Linton, Ohio. Annals of the Carnegie Museum, 52:393–411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reisz, R.R., and Laurin, M. 1991. Owenetta and the origin of turtles. Nature, 349 (6307): 324–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renesto, S. 1994. Megalancosaurus, a possibly arboreal archosauromorph (Reptilia) from the Upper Triassic of northern Italy. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 14(1):38–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rieppel, O. 1987. Clarazia and Hescheleria: a reinvestigation of two problematical reptiles from the Middle Triassic of Monte San Giorgio, Switzerland. Palaeontographica A195:101–129.Google Scholar
Rieppel, O. 1993. Euryapsid relationships: a preliminary analysis. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, 188(2): 241–264.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. 1962. Gliding lizards from the Upper Keuper of Great Britain. Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 1601:137–146.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. 1975. The functions of the hooked fifth metatarsal in lepidosaurian reptiles. Colloques Internationale de Centre National de Recherche Scientifique, 218: 461–483.Google Scholar
Romer, A.S. 1956. Osteology of the Reptiles. University Chicago Press, Chicago, 772 p.Google Scholar
Sanderson, M.J., and Donoghue, M.J. 1989. Patterns of variation in levels of homoplasy. Evolution, 43:1781–1795.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwenk, K. 1988. Comparative morphology of the lepidosaur tongue and its relevance to squamate phylogeny. p. 569–598. In The phylogenetic relationships of the lizard families: essays commemorating Charles L. Camp. Estes, R., and Pregill, G.K. (eds.), Stanford University Press, Palo Alto.Google Scholar
Schwenk, K. 1994. Why snakes have forked tongues. Science, 263:1573–1577.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sereno, P.C. 1991. Basal archosaurs: phylogenetic relationships and functional implications. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 11(4: Suppl.): Memoir, 2:1–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sereno, P.C. 1993. The pectoral girdle and forelimb of the basal theropod Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis . Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 13(4): 425–450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sereno, P.C., and Novas, F.E. 1993. The skull and neck of the basal theropod Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis . Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 13(4): 451–476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sereno, P.C., and Arcucci, A.B. 1990. The monophyly of crurotarsal archosaurs and the origin of bird and crocodile ankle joints. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 180:21–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sereno, P.C., and Arcucci, A.B. 1994. Dinosaurian precursors from the Middle Triassic of Argentina: Marasuchus lilloensis, gen. nov. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 14(1): 53–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smithson, T.R. 1985. The morphology and relationships of the Carboniferous amphibian Eoherpeton watsoni Panchen. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 85: 317–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smithson, T.R., Carroll, R.L., Panchen, A.L., and Andrews, S.M. 1994. Westlothiana lizziae from the Visean of East Kirkton, West Lothian, Scotland, and the amniote stem. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 84:383–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, R.C. 1962. Adaptations for bipedal locomotion in lizards. American Zoologist, 2(2): 191–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stolpe, M. von. 1932. Physiologisch-anatomische Untersuchungen über die hintere Extremität der Vögel. Journal der Ornithologie, 80(2): 163–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Storrs, G.W., 1992. Pachystropheus rhaeticus, a choristoderan reptile from the European Triassic and its implications for studies of the fossil record. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 12(3 Suppl.): 53A–54A.Google Scholar
Sumida, S.S. 1990. Vertebral morphology, alternation of neural spine height, and structure in Permo-Carboniferous tetrapods, and a reappraisal of primitive modes of terrestrial locomotion. University of California Publications in Zoology, 122:1–133.Google Scholar
Sumida, S.S., and Lombard, R.E. 1991. The atlas-axis complex in the Late Paleozoic diadectomorph amphibian Diadectes and the characteristics of the atlas-axis complex across the amphibian to amniote transition. Journal of Paleontology, 65: 973–983.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sumida, S.S., Lombard., R.E., and Berman, D.S. 1992. Morphology of the atlas-axis complex of the late Paleozoic tetrapod suborders Diadectomorpha and Seymouriamorpha. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (B) 336: 259–273.Google Scholar
Thommasen, H., and Carroll, R.L. 1981. Broomia, the oldest known millerettid reptile. Palaeontology, 24(part 2):379–390.Google Scholar
Thulborn, T. 1990. Dinosaur Tracks. Chapman and Hall, London. 410 p.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walls, G.L. 1967. The vertebrate eye and its adaptive radiation. Cranbrook Institute of Science Bulletin, 9:1–785.Google Scholar
Weems, R.E. 1980. An unusual newly discovered archosaur from the Upper Triassic of Vriginia, U.S.A. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 70(7):1–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wever, E.G. 1978. The Reptile Ear: Its Structure and Function. Princeton University Press, Princeton. 1024 p.Google Scholar
White, T.E. 1939. Osteology of Seymouria baylorensis Broili. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 85: 332–409.Google Scholar
Wiley, E.O. 1979. An annotated Linnaean hierarchy, with comments on natural taxa and competing systems. Systematic Zoology, 28: 308–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wyld, J.A., and Brush, A.H. 1983, Keratin diversity in the reptilian epidermis. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 225:387–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar