Agave americana L., American aloe

It is a native of America, but naturalized and widely distributed in India. It has Sanskrit names such as Kantala (Nadkarni, Reference Nadkarni1914; Watson, Reference Watson1868; Torkelson, Reference Torkelson1999) and Kalakantala (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002). Therefore, it appeared to have been introduced in ancient times when Sanskrit was the common language of the subcontinent.

It appeared to have been introduced as ornamental, but has long history of traditional medicinal use. Roots have flavonoids and saponins, which have therapeutic value (Kadam et al., Reference Kadam, Yadav, Deoda, Narappanawar, Shivatare and Patil2012). Roots with sarsaparilla in form of decoction and juice of leaves are used in syphilitic complaints. Fresh juice is a good external application on bruises and contusions. Gum from leaves used to cure toothache, while slices as tonic and poultice (ICMR, 2004, 1:362–374).

Allium cepa L., Onion

The Central Asia region is considered as primary centre of origin of onion, while near east and Mediterranean regions as the secondary centres. The earliest records of its cultivation come from Egypt. In India, its reference is found in 6th century BC writings (Bhava Mishra, ca.1600 AD, Reference Chunekar and Pandey1995) with several Sanskrit names, Palandu, Yavaneshta, Durgandha, Mukhdushak. Archaeobotanical remains of Allium cepa have been recorded in Middle Gangetic Plains [Waina, Ballia, Raja-Nala-Ka-Tila, Uttar Pradesh (UP)] (Saraswat, Reference Saraswat2005), confirming its ancient cultivation.

The medicinal use of onion by Emperor Ashok (ca. 268–232 BC) have been historically documented [Divyavadan (200 AD), Reference Viadya1959]. Onion bulbs contain an acrid volatile oil, while the active principle is reported to be glycolic acid (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Chopra and Verma1969). The bulbs are stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, rubefacient, aphrodisiac and antiseptic (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Chopra, Handa and Kapoor1982). It is used to clear obstructions of intestines, prolapse of the anus and as sedative (Aiyegoro et al., Reference Aiyegoro, Akinpelu, Afolayan and Okoh2008). Onion juice is applied as liniment with mustard oil over painful joints, inflammatory swelling and skin diseases (ICMR, 2004, 2:1–89). Onion and garlic extracts have antibacterial properties (Purseglove, Reference Purseglove1972).

Allium sativum L., Garlic

Maab and Klaas (Reference Maab and Klaas1995) suggest, west to middle Asia to be the primary centre of origin and the Mediterranean as the secondary centre of origin. Further, they indicated that the garlic of subtropical region might have originated independently from Allium longicuspis Regel, in North India. The trade relationship between Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Indian Subcontinent during ‘Mohenjo-Daro period’, about 3000 BC, probably led to its introduction to India. Later, the bulbs were brought as seed and grown. Arabian traders and the Greeks (Alexander 300 BC), ‘Yavans’, brought garlics into cooking as a condiment and into Ayurveda as medicine. It has several Sanskrit names, Mahaaushadha, Lashunaha, Granjanaha, Aristaha, Mahakandaha, Rasonakaha and Amarkosha. It was possibly documented for the first time in Amarsingh's ‘Amarkosha’ brought out in 600 AD at the time of king Vikramaditya (Amarsimha, 2001). Additional Sanskrit names, Ugragandha, Malechakanda and Yavanishta were also recorded (Garga, Reference Garga1969). Three cloves of A. sativum were found carbonized at Balu, Haryana, a Harappa site (Saraswat and Pokharia, Reference Saraswat and Pokharia2002), confirming its ancient cultivation and use.

Onion and garlic finds are mentioned in Charaka-Samhita. The garlic cloves/buds have stimulant, carminative, emmenagogue, anti-rheumatic and alterative action (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Chopra, Handa and Kapoor1982). The juice and essential oil showed protective action against fat-induced increase in serum cholesterol and plasma fibrinogen, and decrease in fibrinolytic activity, as well coagulation time (Bordia and Bansal, Reference Bordia and Bansal1973; Bordia et al., Reference Bordia, Bansal, Arcra, Rathore, Ranawat and Singh1974). Garlic and onion are effective in controlling the hyperglycaemic effect of glucose feeding (Jain et al., Reference Jain, Vyas and Mahatma1973). Allicin (diallyl thiosulfinate or diallyl disulfide), the biologically most active compound is antimicrobial. It was first chemically isolated in the 1940s. Externally garlic juice is used as rubefacient in skin diseases, and as ear-drops for ear-ache (Kapoor, Reference Kapoor2001). It is also anthelmintic (ICMR, 2004 2:1–89).

Aloe barbadensis Mill; syn. A. vera L., Aloe

It is a native to Mediterranean region of Southern Europe (Spain) and North Africa. Its antiquity was first discovered in 1862 in an Egyptian papyrus, dated 1550 BC with Queens being associated with its use for their physical beauty. Alexander conquered the island of Socotra in the Indian Ocean to secure supplies of Aloes to treat the battle wounds of his soldiers. This plant came to India, through human trade and migration. The Hindus derived their knowledge about aloe from the Rig Veda, where it was recommended for use in reproductive disorders, liver disease and against parasites, and referred to as Ghrita Kumari in Sanskrit.

Aloes contains anthraquinone C-glycosides, which are responsible for purgative properties. It has stomachic action in small quantity and purgative in large quantity, and indirectly emmenagogue and anthelmintic too. Dried juice is cathartic, while fresh is cooling. Pulp helps in menstrual suppression (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Nayar and Chopra1956). Juice in the form of ointment in Vaseline hastens healing of wounds of thermal burns and radiation (Singh et al., Reference Singh, Sharma, Arora and Kocher1973). Aloe compound are very useful in case of functional sterility and disturbed menstrual function (Gupta, Reference Gupta1972). Known for laxative properties of aloin and its gel, it is being increasingly used as skin moisturizing and anti-ageing. Ayurveda drug prepared from this, ‘kumari asava’ is used in diverse ailments (ICMR, 2004 2:101–115).

Ananas comosus (Stickm.) Merr., Pineapple

It ia a native of Brazil, cultivated for a long time in Central America. It was introduced into India, probably by the 5th century AD via Middle East. It has Sanskrit names, Anamnasam and Bahunetraphalam (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002). Sculpture depicting the fruit on the vanamala of Vishnu in his Varaha avatara in the Udayagiri cave temples, Madhya Pradesh (MP), dated ca. 5th century AD (Gupta, Reference Gupta1996) has been found. This could not have been possible without locals and artisans being familiar with the plant. Other places with such depiction is at Moti-ShahKa-Tuk, Shatrunjaya Hill complex, Palitana, Gujarat, which is believed to be more than 1000 years old, confirming its presence during ancient times.

Pineapple fruit contains digestive ferment, bromelin, closely related to trypsin, while plant has arsenic properties. It has febrifuge, alterative and bitter tonic action. Ripe fruit juice is antiscorbutic, diuretic, diaphoretic, aperient, refrigerant and helps in digestion of albuminous substances. Unripe fruit is acrid, styptic, diuretic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue and abortifacient (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Chopra, Handa and Kapoor1982). Garg et al. (Reference Garg, Saxena and Chaudhary1970) reported that unripe fruit juice showed antifertility activity.

Annona spp. – Annona cherimola Mill., Large Annona, Custard apple

It is a native of the highlands of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, it is also found in Mesoamerica. As per Balfour Edward (Reference Balfour Edward1871–1873), the tree was introduced into India in 1820. However, the fruit of A. cherimolia is shown held by a sculpted goddess figure on a wall of a Hoysala Dynasty temple in Karnataka State, India, dated to 13th century (Johannessen and Wang, Reference Johannessen and Wang1998). Thus, indicating its introduction much earlier to reach this stage of cultural, social and religious recognition.

Fruit has great antioxidant potential and contains bioactive compounds, carotenoids and vitamins (Albuquerque et al., Reference Albuquerque, Santos, Sanches-Silva, Oliveira, Bento and Costa2016). Most prominent poly-phenolic antioxidants recorded is Annonaceous acetogenins. Acetogenin compounds such as asimicin, bullatacinare, etc., are cytotoxic (anticancer), anti-malarial and anthelmintic. Fruit is also a good source of vitamin C, B-complex, especially pyridoxine that helps keep-up high level of glutamate (GABA), the neuro chemical in the brain, which calms down nervous irritability, tension and headache ailments (www.nutrition-and-you.com/cherimoya.html).

Annona reticulata L., Bullock's Heart, Custard apple

It is another species, native of tropical America and naturalized in India to an extent that some authors have considered it as a native. It has Sanskrit names, Rama Sita (Balfour Edward, Reference Balfour Edward1871–1873), Ramphal (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002), Luvunee (Watson, Reference Watson1868), Ramphala (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Nayar and Chopra1956; Torkelson, Reference Torkelson1999) and Krishnabeejam. As most names are associated with Lord Rama, it indicates its connection with ancient Indian legends. It has been displayed on sculptures at the Bharhut Stupa of 2nd century (Cunningham, Reference Cunningham1879). Fruit pieces and seeds have been recovered from Sanghoi, Punjab and Tokwa and Raja-Nala-Ka-Tila, UP (Saraswat et al., Reference Saraswat, Rajagopalan and Prasad2008), confirming its ancient presence.

Annona squamosa L., Sugar apple

It is the main cultivated fruit species, also native of tropical America. It grows wild in MP and naturalized to southern parts of India, thriving well in Karnataka and Maharashtra. It is mentioned in writings dated beginning of the present era and Ramayana, ca. 2000–1000 BC up to AD 200. Its Sanskrit names, [Shubhâ and Suda (Nadkarni, Reference Nadkarni1914), Sitaphalam (Torkelson, Reference Torkelson1999), Gandagatra and Sitaphala (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Nayar and Chopra1956), and Sitaphalam, Gandhagathra and Shubha (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002)]. Association of these names with Lord Rama and his wife, Sita, suggests that they probably used this fruit during exile (Bhishagratna, Reference Bhishagratna1907). Cunningham (Reference Cunningham1879) described its fruit sculptured at Bhárhut Stupa, 2nd century BC and Watt (Reference Watt1889) at Ajanta Caves, while Gupta (Reference Gupta1996) reported it in the hands of various deities in temples situated in various parts of the country. Fruit pieces and seeds of these two species have also been found at Sanghol, Punjab and at Raja-Nal-Ka-Tila and Tokwa UP, dated ca. 1700/1600 to 200 BC (Saraswat et al., Reference Saraswat, Rajagopalan and Prasad2008). These evidences are indicative of its ancient cultivation, contradicting De Candolle (Reference De Candolle1882) suggestion of its introduction by the Portuguese in the 16th century.

A. reticulata fruit is rich in nutrients. Acetogenins present in A. reticulata possess more potent antitumour and cardio protective activity (McLaughlin, Reference McLaughlin2008). Annona squamosa fruit is rich in vitamin C. Aporphine alkaloids, anonaine, roemerine, noreorydine, corydine (from root; anti-cancerous), norisocorydine, isocorydine and glaucine have been isolated from it (Bhakuni et al., Reference Bhakuni, Tewari and Dhar1972). It has astringent, tonic, anthelmintic, purgative and diuretic action. The seeds have little oxytocic activity. Ripe fruit of Annona species, bruised and mixed with salt are applied on malignant tumours. Leaves paste are applied to ulcers (Kapoor, Reference Kapoor2001).

Argemone Mexicana L., Prickle poppy

It is a native of Mexico, grows as weed all over India. It is mentioned in the Indian medicinal writings dated 1st or 2nd century AD, such as Sushruta Samhita. It has several Sanskrit names (Bhava Mishra, ca.1600 AD, Reference Chunekar and Pandey1995), Brahmadandi (Nadkarni, Reference Nadkarni1914), Srigála kantá and Brahmadandi (Watt, Reference Watt1889), Srigala-kantaka (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Nayar and Chopra1956), Satyanasi (Torkelson, Reference Torkelson1999) and Swarnakshiri and Bhramadendi (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002). Charred seeds of this plant were found at a site in Punjab, radiocarbon dated to 1100 and 1060 BC (Pokharia and Saraswat, Reference Pokharia and Saraswat1999). It is also recorded at Narhan, UP belonging to the Black-and-Red-Ware phase (ca. 1300–800 BC) and the Black-Slipped-Ware phase (ca. 800–600 BC) (Saraswat et al., Reference Saraswat, Sharma, Saini and Singh1994), confirming its ancient cultivation and medicinal use.

All the plant parts have pharmacological actions. The stem and roots contain 0.125% of total alkaloids having 0.041% berberine and 0.084% of protopine (Willaman and Li, Reference Willaman and Li1970). The seeds yield 22–33% nauseous, bitter nonedible oil (Bose et al., Reference Bose, Vijayvargiya, Saifi and Sharma1963). Root is diuretic, anodyne and hypnotic. Seeds are laxative, emetic, expectorant, demulcent and narcotic. Oil is purgative, narcotic and demulcent. Plant juice is diuretic and alterative, given in dropsy, jaundice, skin diseases and gonorrhoea. Juice is also applied to blisters, rheumatic pains, ulcers, scabies, herpetic eruptions and warts (Kapoor, Reference Kapoor2001). Also, it shows anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, anti-bacterial and antifungal activities (Bhattacharjee et al., Reference Bhattacharjee, Chatterjee, Chatterjee and Chandra2006).

Bixa Orellana L., Achiote (Anotto)

It is a native of Brazil, naturalized to India to such an extent that initially Indian botanists considered it of Indian origin. It appeared to have reached India via Pacific islands and Southeast Asia. In Sanskrit, it is called Sinduri (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002), Brahmi (Balfour Edward, Reference Balfour Edward1871–1873) and Raktabeeja, Rakhtapushpa, Sukomata (Bhava Mishra, ca.1600 AD, Reference Chunekar and Pandey1995), indicating introduction no later than 1000 AD.

It is well known for its reddish orange dye, produced on aril portion of its seed, which is widely used for colouring dairy, confectionary and bakery products, as cosmetic pharmaceutical ointments, and for dyeing leather (Chattopadhyay et al., Reference Chattopadhyay, Chatterjee and Sen2008). The leaves have marked effect on urinary system, reduce benign prostrate hyperplasia and have anti-tumour activity due to antioxidant activity of the carotenoid compounds, Bixin and Norbixin. Methanolic extract of Bixa leaves exhibited neuropharmacological, anticonvulsant, analgesic, antidiarrheal activities (Shilpi et al., Reference Shilpi, Taufiq-Ur-Rahman, Uddin, Alam, Sadhu and Seidel2006) and diuretic activity (Radhika et al., Reference Radhika, Begum, Srisailam and Reddy2010).

Canna edulis Ker Gawl.; syn. C. indica L., Indian shot

It is a plant of North western and South American origin, cultivated for its edible starchy rootstock. The stock is pictured in ceramic effigies and also drawn on pots in coastal Peru. It has Sanskrit names, Sarvajayá and Silarumba (Watt, Reference Watt1889), Silarumba (Balfour Edward, Reference Balfour Edward1871–1873), Sarvajaya (Nadkarni, Reference Nadkarni1914) and Devakuli (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002), indicating ancient cultivation in India. It is a common ornamental plant all over gardens.

Tuber is eaten and the rhizome extracts are traditionally used against headaches, diarrhoea, yaws, acute hepatitis, traumatic injuries, as a diuretic and against nose bleeding (ICMR, 2007 5:300). It is also used in waste water treatment (Neralla et al., Reference Neralla, Weaver, Varvel and Lesikar1999). Recently, antioxidative properties have been reported by Mishra et al. (Reference Mishra, Goyal, Middha and Sen2011).

Cannabis sativa L., Hashish (Marijuana)

A native of western and central Asia. Found wild in the western Himalayas, including Kashmir. The Indian variant has been referred as C. sativa subsp. indica (Lam.) E.Small & Cronquit/C. sativa L. var. indica (Lam.) Wehmer. Therefore, either it is a case of independent geographical domestication after extended distribution or evolution of ancient introduction. It has Sanskrit names, such as Vijayâ and Siddhapatri (Nadkarni, Reference Nadkarni1914), Ganjika and Bhanga (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Nayar and Chopra1956), and Matulani, Madini, Jaya (Bhava Mishra, ca.1600 AD, Reference Chunekar and Pandey1995). Flattened seeds have been found in archaeological remains of Kunal, Haryana (Saraswat and Pokharia, Reference Saraswat and Pokharia2003) and wood charcoal at Senuwar, Middle Ganga plain (Saraswat, Reference Saraswat and Singh2004), corroborating ancient cultivation.

Cannabis has a long history of use as a psychoactive drug in Asia, consequent to which its cultivation is restricted. However, for the same property, it is used in treatment of numerous diseases and pain relief. Over 60 different compounds have been identified, collectively referred as cannabinoids (Robson, Reference Robson1997). The most abundant and primary psychoactive constituent is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) isolated in 1964 (Hirst et al., Reference Hirst, Lambert and Notcutt1998). Additionally, it contains cannabidiol (Grlie, Reference Grlie1976), which has multiple pharmacological actions, including anxiolytic, antipsychotic, antiemetic and anti-inflammatory (Bergamaschi et al., Reference Bergamaschi, Queiroz, Zuardi and Crippa2011). The resin content in crude, leaves and stem are 29.23, 7.25 and 3.25%, respectively. It relaxes the muscles, produce initial excitement followed by depression with psychotomimetic effect (Bose et al., Reference Bose, Saifi and Bhagwat1964). Hemp seed oil is a complete nutrition source, with all essential amino and fatty acids, measurable amounts of terpenes, cannabinoids and phenolic, without negative effects (Leizer et al., Reference Leizer, Ribnicky, Poulev, Dushenkov and Raskin2000).

Carthamus tinctorius L., Safflower

Genus Carthamus is distributed from Spain and North Africa across the Middle East to North India. A majority of evidence suggests its origin in an area bound by the eastern Mediterranean and Persian Gulf (Knowles, Reference Knowles1969). However, based on variability and production in ancient culture, Vavilov (Reference Vavilov and Love1935) proposed India as one of its centres. From the Middle East, where it was used for colouring textiles, the safflower probably spread into India by the Arab traders and trans-domesticated as an oilseed crop. In ancient Sanskrit literature, safflower has been described as Kusumbha. Achene of safflower has been found in archaeological remains at sites such as Imlidih-Khurd, UP and Middle Gangetic Plains (Saraswat et al., Reference Saraswat, Sharma, Saini and Singh1994; Saraswat, Reference Saraswat2005). Grains were found at Savalda (ca. 2300–2000 BC) in western Maharashtra, confirming its ancient cultivation.

Flowers have been used in Ayurveda medicines preparation. They are reported to cure several chronic diseases, like hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, arthritis, spondylosis and sterility in both men and women (Li and Mundel, Reference Li and Mundel1996). They are also used to treat menstrual pains. Externally, they are applied to bruising, sprains, skin inflammations, wounds, etc. Seed is diuretic, purgative and tonic, used in the treatment of rheumatism and tumours, especially inflammatory liver tumour, while seed oil helps to reduce blood-cholesterol (Nagaraj, Reference Nagaraj1993; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Guanb and Yang2016).

Catharanthus roseus G.Don, Periwinkle

It is a native of Madagascar. It is generally believed to have been introduced into India by the Portuguese in the 18th century. However, presence of Sanskrit names, Nitya Kalyani and Sadapushpi, and use in treatment of diseases in Ayurveda system, suggest that it might have been introduced during ancient times. Though, there is no archaeological evidence to support its presence in ancient India, it grows wild all over India as an escape.

The leaves contain alkaloids, vindoline and catharanthine. Vinblastine and Vincristine are the two anticancer drugs used in the treatment of acute leukaemia and Hodgkin's disease (Noble, Reference Noble1990). Leaf and root bark are the source of ajmalicine, used in treatment of high blood pressure, as tonic, stomachic, hypotensive, sedative and tranquilizer (Kurz et al., Reference Kurz, Chatson, Constabel, Kutney, Choi, Kolodziejczyk, Sleigh, Stuart and Worth1981). Flowers are used to treat asthma. Plant extract can help treat dysentery and diarrhoea (ICMR, 2007 5:813–859). For further details see Kulkarni et al. (Reference Kulkarni, Baskaran and Jhang2016).

Datura spp.

Although opinions vary, most consider Central America as home of this genus (Sorenson and Johannessen, Reference Sorenson and Johannessen2004). There are two basic species, Datura metel L. (syn. Datura meteloides, Datura innoxia, Datura fastuosa, Datura alba) and Datura stramonium L. (syn. Datura tatula, Datura patula) found growing naturalized in waste lands throughout India, particularly in the arid and semi-arid regions of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. They appear to have been introduced 2–3 millennia ago either via a single transoceanic boat passage that brought both the species, or by separate voyages to different destinations as reflected by the ancient literature and archaeological finds. Chopra et al. (Reference Chopra, Chopra, Handa and Kapur1958) reported Datura innoxia, a native of Mexico, growing in the western parts of the Deccan Peninsula and a few other places. At least eight Sanskrit names, Dhustura and Dhattura (Nadkarni, Reference Nadkarni1914; Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Nayar and Chopra1956; Torkelson, Reference Torkelson1999), Madakara (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002), Khrishna-dhattura (Watson, Reference Watson1868) and Unmatta, Kanaka and Shivapriya (Bhava Mishra, ca.1600 AD, Reference Chunekar and Pandey1995) are known. Pokharia and Saraswat (Reference Pokharia and Saraswat1999) excavated specimens of Datura (exact species not determinable) in Punjab, dating to the 1st–3rd centuries AD.

Lancaster (Reference Lancaster1965) lists Datura as one of the species whose flowers were sacred in India. In Ayurveda, Datura plant parts are used to treat various disorders, including asthma, skin disorders, jaundice, piles and diabetes (Dash and Kashyap, Reference Dash and Kashyap1991). Smoking seeds for asthma treatment was known in the Vedic period. Also, mentioned for use in suicidal and homicidal purposes (ICMR, 2009). The total alkaloid content in Datura varies from 0.02 to 0.52%, and scopolamine from 0.0029 to 0.32% on dry weight basis (Vitale et al., Reference Vitale, Acher and Pomilio1995). Hyoscyamine, hyoscine and meteloidin are used as pre-anaesthetic in surgery and childbirth, ophthalmology and prevention of motion sickness. The active constituents in Datura include scopolamine, atropine, hyoscyamine, withanolides and other tropanes. Withanolide compounds have shown significant antitumor, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, hepatoprotective, sedative, cytostatic and immunosuppressive activities (Maheshwari et al., Reference Maheshwari, Khan and Chopade2013). Isolectins have been isolated from Datura stramonium seeds. Two of these lectins are homodimers made up of either A/B subunits, while the third is a heterodimer composed of either (Broekaert et al., Reference Broekaert, Allen and Peunes1987).

Lagenaria siceraria (Monila) Standl., Bottle gourd

It is one of the oldest cultivated plants, originated from wild population in Southern Africa. It might have been carried from Africa to Asia by oceanic drift during summer monsoon or in the course of human migration. Genetic research on archaeological samples published by the National Academy of Sciences (December 2005) suggested that it may have been domesticated earlier than food crops and livestock. Based on the analysis of archaeological samples, two unrelated domestications: one 8–9000 years ago in Asia and other 4000 years ago in Egypt are indicated. Old Indian scripts and the fossil records indicate its culture even before 2000 BC. It is cultivated nearly all over India as backyard garden crop from ancient times. It has several Sanskrit names such as Alâbu (Nadkarni, Reference Nadkarni1914) and Kutukumbi (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002), confirming its ancient cultivation.

In Ayurveda, bottle gourd is advocated for treatment of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, flatulence, cooling properties, liver diseases, weight loss, congestive cardiac failure (CCF) and other associated benefits. It is part of complementary and alternative therapy, which is widely prevalent in India (Prajapati et al., Reference Prajapati, Kalariya, Parmar and Sheth2010; Milind and Kaur, Reference Milind and Kaur2011; ICMR, 2012). Pulp boiled in oil is used to treat rheumatism and insomnia (ICMR, 2015). The chemical compounds isolated include sterols, terpenoids, flavonoids and saponins (Prajapati et al., Reference Prajapati, Kalariya, Parmar and Sheth2010).

Mimosa pudica L., Touch-me-not

It is a native of tropical America, possibly Brazil. It was introduced into India probably two millennia ago via transoceanic movements. It is now naturalized to most of tropical and sub-tropical India. The sensitiveness property of the touch-me-not plant is described in Ayurveda. It has Sanskrit names, Anjalikarika and Lajja (Torkelson, Reference Torkelson1999), Ajàlikalika Namaskâri (Nadkarni, Reference Nadkarni1914) and Lajjalu Namaskari (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002), confirming its ancient introduction and use.

In Ayurveda, its root is recorded bitter, acrid, cooling, vulnerary, alexipharmic, used in the treatment of leprosy, dysentery, vaginal and uterine complaints, and inflammations, burning sensation, asthma, leukoderma, fatigue and blood diseases. Decoction of root is used as gargle to reduce toothache. It is very useful in diarrhoea, amoebic dysentery, bleeding piles and urinary infections (Joseph et al., Reference Joseph, George and Mohan2013).

Mirabilis jalapa L., Four-o'clock

Four-o'clock is a native of South America and is cultivated in gardens. It is widely cultivated in India, corroborating its ancient introduction. Recorded as ‘Gulambasa’ in Ayurveda, has several other Sanskrit names, Sandhya-rága (Nadkarni, Reference Nadkarni1914), Krishnakeli (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Nayar and Chopra1956; Torkelson, Reference Torkelson1999), Ttrisandhi, Krsnakeli and Sandhya-Raga (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002) and Bahu-Bumi, and Sundia-ragum (Balfour Edward, Reference Balfour Edward1871–1873).

It is medicinally used widely in Himalayan region. Root of the plant is used as a diuretic, purgative and for vulnerary wound healing purposes. Leaves are used as anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antispasmodic and anti-inceptive agents (Shishir et al., Reference Shishir, Laxman, Vinayak, Jacky and Bhimrao2008).

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC, Velvet Bean

It is a native of the Americas, present in Polynesia and the Malay region in prehistoric times. Others believe, it occurs commonly throughout the tropical regions of the Americas, Africa and India. In India, it is mentioned in texts dated before the rise of Buddha, including Ayurveda. It has Sanskrit names, Atmaguptä, Kapikachchhu (Nadkarni, Reference Nadkarni1914; Torkelson, Reference Torkelson1999) and Atmagupta, Vanari (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002).

Seeds are considered as a strong aphrodisiac and roots as a tonic in India. Seeds contain alkaloid, L-dihydroxy-phenylalanine (Damodaran and Ramaswamy, Reference Damodaran and Ramaswamy1937), which is a sedative drug used for the treatment of Parkinson's syndrome (Nath et al., Reference Nath, Gupta, Bhragava, Lakshmi, Singh and Popli1981), and in kidney and dropsy ailments. Also, it has been found to reactivate the antioxidant defence system, necessary for maintaining homeostasis within the body. For further details, see Sathyanarayana et al. (Reference Sathyanarayana, Mahesh, Leelambika, Jaheer, Chopra and Rashmi2016).

Nicotiana tabacum L., Tobacco

It is a native of the Americas, as per Materia Medica, tobacco was introduced into India in 1605 AD. Others believe that tobacco began in the New World and was carried to India after its introduction into Europe (Ashraf, Reference Ashraf1985). However, the use of the water-cooled smoking device, ‘hooka’, is shown in pre-Columbian art of India, along with its medicinal references in traditional medical practices. Its Sanskrit name is Tamakhu (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Nayar and Chopra1956; Torkelson, Reference Torkelson1999). Archaeologically, a temple in Himachal Pradesh dated to 1422–1424 AD depicts the use of the hooka. Photographic documentation of this depiction is also available from other temples through the Archaeological Survey of India, indicating its ancient presence and use.

The Materia Medica of India considers tobacco an agricultural crop (product), used in treatment of some ailments and medicines. Tobacco leaf contains several pyridine alkaloids, the principal one is a liquid alkaloid, nicotine (Kishore, Reference Kishore2014). Nicotine is used for treatment of Alzheimer's diseases, Parkinson's disease, depression and anxiety, schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, pains and obesity (Binorkar and Jani, Reference Binorkar and Jani2012), besides several other associated uses.

Papaver somniferum L., Opium poppy

The centre of origin of opium poppy is Western Mediterranean region of Europe, wherefrom it spread through Balkan Peninsula to Asia Minor (Morton, Reference Morton1977). Beginning of cultivation of opium in India is a researchable issue. It has been mentioned as soma plant in Rig Veda, which dates back to 1500 BC or more as per Indian scholars. Soma in Sanskrit means moon, describing the shape of the bulb and emission of sap, visible in moon light. Other Sanskrit names are Ahiphenam, Aphukam (Farooqi et al., Reference Farooqi, Sreeramu and Srinivasappa2005). It has been visualized that Sumerians were the earliest users of the opium poppy or Greek, who knew about opium during Hippocrates time or Alexander, introduced opium into India around 330 BC. Archaeologically, a flattish piece of some cake-like structure is recovered in carbonized state (1900–1400 BC) from Sanghal, Punjab (Saraswat, Reference Saraswat1997).

Dwarkanath (Reference Dwarkanath1965) described the properties of opium from Ayurveda, as one of the oldest and important medicinal plant, best known as painkiller drug. The sap of the poppy plant contains opium and oxalic acid. It has around 25 alkaloids, morphine is the major constituent, followed by noscapine, codeine, thebaine and papaverine (Shukla et al., Reference Shukla, Singh, Yadav and Chatterjee2006). Pharmacologically opium has analgesic and narcotic action due to morphine followed by codeine and thebaine.

Psidium guajava L., Guava

Guava is native of tropical America. The site of Caral in the Supe Valley of Peru has yielded remains of guava, dated between 2627 and 2020 Cal BC. It is naturalized and cultivated throughout India. It has several Sanskrit names such as Mansala (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Nayar and Chopra1956), Péràlà (Nadkarni, Reference Nadkarni1914), Amruta-phalam (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Chopra, Handa and Kapur1958) and Perukah and Mansala (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002), Peruka or Paravata (Kumari et al., Reference Kumari, Shetty and Chaturvedi2013). It finds mention in Charaka Samhita, indicating that it was introduced not later than the 4th century. Probably it was present considerably earlier, negating the common belief that it was introduced by the Portuguese in 17th Century.

Guava fruit is rich in dietary fibre, protein, minerals, vitamins A, b1, b2, b3, C and folic acid. Active factors are ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, arjunolic acid and glucuronic acid (Chang, Reference Chang1982). Huge amounts of β-sitosterol glucoside, brahmic acid and polyphenolics, including gallic acid, ferulic acid and quercetin (Peng and Hsieh, Reference Peng and Hsieh2006) and triterpenoids (Chen et al., Reference Chen, Peng, Chiu, Cheng, Huang and Hsieh2010) exist in guava leaves, which are effective against various diseases. Pharmacological activities of its major components indicate it as potent anti-diarrhoeal, antihypertensive, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, antimicrobial, hypoglycaemic and anti-mutagenic (Joseph & Mini Priya, Reference Joseph and Mini Priya2011). It is also rich in antioxidant and protects cell damage (Kumari et al., Reference Kumari, Shetty and Chaturvedi2013).

Ricinus communis L., Castor

Domesticated in West-Central Africa, castor spread to Egypt (4000 BC) and then reached India (2000 BC). In Sanskrit, it is called, Eranda, Gandharva hasta and Rakta-erund; Shukla-erund (Bhava Mishra, ca.1600 AD, Reference Chunekar and Pandey1995). The earliest archaeobotanical record of castor in India was found at the Harappan site of Hulas (Saraswat, Reference Saraswat1993) dated between 1800 and 1300 BC. Since then it has been recorded both in Indus valley and Gangetic plains (Saraswat, Reference Saraswat1992, Reference Saraswat and Singh2004, Reference Saraswat2005).

In the Indian medicine system, the leaf, root and seed oil of castor have been used for the treatment of inflammation and liver disorders, and for hypoglycaemic, laxative activities (Kensa and Yasmin, Reference Kensa and Yasmin2011). Flavonoids, kaempferol-3-O-beta-drutinoside and kaempferol-3-O-beta-d-xylo pyranoid (Chen et al., Reference Chen, Zhang and Chen2008) and tannins (Khafagy et al., Reference Khafagy, Mahmoud and Salam1979) have been isolated from the leaves, and Indole-3-acetic acid from the roots (Kang et al., Reference Kang, Cordell, Soejarto and Fong1985). Seeds contain toxic proteins Ricin A, B and C and ricinus agglutinin. The pericarp of the fruits contains alkaloid ricinine (Ferraz et al., Reference Ferraz, Angelucci, Da Costa, Batista, De Oliveira and Da Cunha1999). These components impart, antioxidant, anti-implantation, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, central analgesic, antitumour, larvicidal (insecticidal) and adult emergence inhibition, antinociceptive and anti-asthmatic activities (Rana et al., Reference Rana, Dhamija, Prashar and Sharma2012).

Tagetes erecta L., T. patula L. (dwarf), Marigold

It is a native of South-central Mexico, though some believe in African origin (Pandey, Reference Pandey, Singh, Singh, Hajra and Sharma2000). It arrived in India, while Sanskrit was the active language. It has four Sanskrit names, Zanduga (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Nayar and Chopra1956; Torkelson, Reference Torkelson1999) and Sandu, Sthulapushpa, Ganduga (Pullaiah, Reference Pullaiah2002). The use of Tagetes spp. in decoration and colouring is associated with Hindu religious ceremonies. There is substantial evidence to suggest its cultivation in India since ancient times with essentially similar use as in Mexico.

The essential oil extracted from marigold in Ayurveda has been listed with moisturizing and gentle heating energies. The oil has antispasmodic, vulnerating, hypotensive, tranquilizing, anti-inflammatory, alterative and antiseptic properties, and contains antioxidants (Perez Gutierrez et al., Reference Perez Gutierrez, Luha and Garrido2006). The most popular use of marigold is as an insect repellent. In India, it has been used in agriculture to supress plant parasitic nematodes for centuries (Khan et al., Reference Khan, Saxena and Siddiqui1971).

Trigonella foenum-graecum L., Fenugreek

It is a native of eastern Mediterranean region. It was brought into cultivation in the Near East as indicated by the charred fenugreek seeds recovered from Tell Halal, Iraq dating back to 4000 BC. It occurs wild in Kashmir, Punjab and the upper Gangetic Plains, suggesting either India as another centre of origin or very early spread of its cultivation in India to get naturalized and appear indigenous. In Sanskrit, it is called by Bahupatrika, Ballari, Bahubeeja, Bodhini, Chandrika, Deepani, Gandhaphata, Medhika, MethikA (Bhava Mishra, ca.1600 AD, Reference Chunekar and Pandey1995), confirming ancient cultivation. Single partly broken seed, somewhat oblong with a deep groove between the radicle and the cotyledon has been identified as Trigonella cf. foenum graecum in initial archaeobotanical remains. Seeds have also been recorded in early and mature Harappan phases at Kunal and Banawali in Haryana and Rohira in Punjab (Saraswat, Reference Saraswat1986; Saraswat et al., Reference Saraswat, Srivastava and Pokharia2000; Saraswat and Pokharia, Reference Saraswat and Pokharia2003).

Seeds help lowering blood sugar and cholesterol (Toppo et al., Reference Toppo, Akhand and Pathak2009). Seeds contain alkaloid, trigonelline, choline and saponin; essential and fixed oil, prolamin, mucilage, bitter and colouring substances (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Chopra, Handa and Kapoor1982). It is source for extraction of diosgenin (Seshadri et al., Reference Seshadri, Varshney and Sood1973). It has demulcent, emmenagogue, aromatic, diuretic, nutritive, tonic, lactation, emollient, astringent, carminative and aphrodisiac actions (Chopra et al., Reference Chopra, Chopra, Handa and Kapoor1982). A poultice of herb is applied to reduce swelling; a pessary or lint saturated with its decoction is used to treat leucorrhoea (Kapoor, Reference Kapoor2001). The leaves relieve indigestion and bilious disorders. Boiled or roasted seeds are eaten in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery, colic, flatulence and rheumatism, enlargement of liver and spleen, and chronic cough. Seed paste is applied to reduce inflammation, as a skin-cosmetic (Kapoor, Reference Kapoor2001).

Vitis vinifera L., Grapes

It is a native of Eurasia. It is thought to have been domesticated first in Southwestern Asia during the Neolithic period. In Asia, the earliest evidence of cultivation of grapes for wine making is from Iran and Baluchistan, dated before 2000 BC, wherefrom cultivation spread slowly into India and China with the beginning of Christian era. It is listed under Ayurveda plants, and possesses Sanskrit names, such as Draksha, Drdkrfi, Swaduphala, Madhurasa (Bhava Mishra, ca.1600 AD, Reference Chunekar and Pandey1995). Two pyriform seeds in carbonized state have been found at Balu and Kunal from mature Harappan stage (Saraswat and Pokharia, Reference Saraswat and Pokharia2002).

Grape fruit is known worldwide for its spectrum of biological properties (www.fruit-crops.com/grape-vitis-spp/), assimilated in Ayurvedic tonic Draksha-Aasav. Grapes contain 70–80% water, sugars, organic acids; phenolic, nitrogenous and aroma compounds; minerals, pectic substances and bioflavonoids. The main biologically active and well-characterized constituent of the grape is resveratrol, which is known for medicinal properties in human diseases (Yadav et al., Reference Yadav, Jain, Bhardwaj, Nagpal, Puniya, Tomar, Singh, Parkash, Prasad, Marotta and Yadav2009).

Table 1 presents a summary of evidences to support the presence of these exotic medicinal plants, introduced into Indian Subcontinents, before 8th century and used in Ayurveda. It presents archaeological evidences gathered by the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow, discovering archeobotanical remains of many of these plant species at various sites in India (Saraswat and associates). Also, the Sanskrit names used for these plants in various writings, including X edition of Bhavaprakash Nighantu (Indian Materia Medica) (Bhava Mishra, ca.1600 AD, Reference Chunekar and Pandey1995), provide hard evidences for their ancient cultivation and use in India.

Table 1. Summary evidences from archaeological remains, literature and Sanskrit names on exotic plants used in ‘Ayurveda’ from ancient times