The thousands of so-called ‘miscellaneous’ remedies preserved in early medieval manuscripts present an untapped resource for investigating the evolution of medicine. Having previously identified ingredients in such remedies unrecorded in classical medical texts, my project at the British School at Rome focused on analysing the extant early medieval manuscripts containing miscellaneous remedies in Rome to investigate the introduction of new sources of pharmaceutical information in the early Middle Ages. My work explored how classical traditions were adapted and fused with a diverse range of material, especially from the east, and I have been particularly interested in tracing the movement of this knowledge in relation to sites in the Italian peninsula: to what extent did individuals in Rome, Ravenna or Venice, for example, play a role in introducing far-eastern ingredients to the Latin west in the eighth, ninth and tenth centuries? This research challenged the traditional emphasis on the inheritance and reception of classical texts, situating early medieval medicine within an Afro-Eurasian context.

Naturally, the Covid-19 pandemic resulted in some changes to various aspects of my research plan, but I am happy to report that, thanks to the digitisation of many manuscripts, I was incredibly fortunate in being able to continue with much of my work even when unable to visit libraries in person. Among the most exciting developments over the past two years has been the identification of many more manuscripts containing medical texts. While my project began with a collection of roughly a dozen manuscripts, the number of relevant manuscripts at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana alone has now increased to nearly 30. This number increases further still when other Italian libraries and archives are added to the mix, as well as those manuscripts that have been identified recently as containing medical material and that were originally produced in Italian scriptoria (even if today they are located outside of Italy). As a result of this major growth in manuscript evidence, thanks in part to suggestions from researchers in the BSR community, my work has focused primarily on the identification, transcription, editing and initial (qualitative) analysis of recipes. This research lays the foundation for quantitative, digital analyses that I shall continue to pursue in my Leverhulme Trust Early Career Fellowship at the University of Sheffield (2021–4).

Given that the project is ongoing, I shall only offer a brief selection of my initial findings and conclusions. First, I have identified additional examples of newly recorded ingredients, such as various eastern resins and spices. Space does not permit me to review these findings in detail, but I intend that they will form the basis of a future publication. In addition to identifying new ingredients in the recipe literature, my research has focused on investigating how this knowledge (and the ingredients themselves) moved. At this stage, I have considered a number of possible networks that facilitated this movement, including Byzantine and Abbasid merchants and diplomats, as well as Radhanite traders, though more research must be pursued in each of these areas. That being said, different types of evidence (with varying strengths) have emerged in support of each of these networks. On this basis, I would suggest that (a) the entry of this pharmaceutical knowledge (and the substances themselves) into the Italian peninsula likely involved all of these groups to some extent, with certain links stronger at particular times and places than others; and (b) the Abbasid's expansion of power and trading links in the east ultimately underpins any of the developments that can be traced in the west. Regarding sites of contact and exchange, it seems that centres in northern Italy, including Ravenna (waning yet still symbolically powerful and linked to the Greek east) and Venice (beginning to grow), likely played a central role, acting as gateways to both Rome and northern Italian scriptoria via ecclesiastical, intellectual, diplomatic and commercial networks.

I look forward to pursuing this research further in Sheffield and hope to share more results in Papers of the British School at Rome before long.