1 Bivens, N Davis “Probation” in Miller, WR (ed) The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia (2012, Sage Publications) 4Google Scholar, available at: <https://edge.sagepub.com/system/files/Ch10RennisonProbation.pdf> (last accessed 31 January 2024).

2 Ibid.

3 PK Raj “Probation: A method of treatment” at 4, available at: <https://prisons.odisha.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/probation-converted-572378-V2cFDUmq.pdf> (last accessed 31 January 2024).

4 J Chimamanda “Probation services in Nigeria” at 4, available at: <https://www.academia.edu/34772370/probation_services_in_Nigeria> (last accessed 31 January 2024).

5 Banks, C Criminal Justice Ethics: Theory and Practice (2009, Sage Publications)Google Scholar.

6 Criminal Procedure Act, available at: <https://lawsofnigeria.placng.org/laws/C41.pdf> (last accessed 31 January 2024).

7 State v Hassan Audu [1979] LPELR-3214 (SC). It is important to note that though probation is often used interchangeably with suspended sentences, the ACJA provides a distinction in secs 454 and 460. The effect of both probation and a suspended sentence is that during the pendency of both, the probationer or offender is required to observe certain conditions, which leads to their final discharge where he or she complies. See Ayinde, DJ “Towards an effective use of a suspended sentence in Nigeria: Lessons from South Africa” (2023) 3/1 Redeemer's University Nigeria Journal of Jurisprudence and International Law 1Google Scholar.

8 Clarke, SH “What is the purpose of probation and why do we revoke it?” (1979) 25/4 Crime & Delinquency 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1177/001112877902500401> (last accessed 4 January 2024).

9 EC Dickinson and CL Coleson “Probation and parole” (1937–38) 44/1 West Virginia Law Quarterly and the Bar 105, available at: <https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/wvb44&div=18&id=&page=> (last accessed 4 January 2024).

10 Garner, BA Black's Law Dictionary (8th ed, 2004, Thomson West Publishing)Google Scholar at 1240.

11 Ibid.

12 R Mann “Non-custodial sentencing” (2020) 613 PostNote 2, available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338917500_POSTnote_613_Non-Custodial_Sentences> (last accessed 4 January 2024).

13 United Nations “Standard minimum rules for non-custodial measures (the Tokyo rules): Resolution / adopted by the General Assembly 1990” UN doc A/RES/45/110 (14 December 1990), available at: <https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/105347> (last accessed 4 January 2024).

14 United Nations “Standard minimum rules for the administration of juvenile justice (‘the Beijing rules’): Resolution / adopted by the General Assembly”, UN doc A/RES/40/33 (29 November 1985), available at: <https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/120958> (last accessed 4 January 2024).

15 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime “United Nations rules for the treatment of women prisoners and non-custodial measures for women offenders (the Bangkok Rules)”, available at: <https://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/Bangkok_Rules_ENG_22032015.pdf> (last accessed 4 January 2024).

16 Administration of Criminal Justice Act 2015, available at: <https://www.policinglaw.info/assets/downloads/2015_Administration_of_Criminal_Justice_Act.pdf> (last accessed 4 January 2024).

17 Nigerian Correctional Services Act 2019, sec 1; available at: <https://www.corrections.gov.ng/storage/report/NCoS_act_2019.pdf> (last accessed 5 February 2024).

18 AO Yekini and M Salisu “Probation as a non-custodial measure in Nigeria: Making a case for adult probation service” (2013) 7/1–2 African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies 110, available at: <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2370858> (last accessed 8 January 2024).

19 Partners West Africa Nigeria “ACJL tracker”, available at: <https://www.partnersnigeria.org/acjl-tracker/> (last accessed 5 January 2024); National Judicial Institute “An overview of the Administration of Criminal Justice Act and Laws” (presentation by Prof Adedeji Adekunle SAN at 2021 All Nigeria Judges Conference of the Superior Courts, organized by the National Judicial Institute, Abuja, 15–19 November 2021), available at: <https://nji.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/An-Overview-of-the-Administration-of-Criminal-Justice-Act-and-Laws-by-Prof.-Adedeji-Adekunle-SAN.pdf> (last accessed 5 January 2024).

20 ACJA, sec 454(1).

21 Id, sec 454(2).

22 Id, sec 455(1).

23 Id, secs 413 and 435–440.

24 Yekini and Salisu “Probation”, above at note 18 at 106.

25 AR Wasnik “Conditions of probation and variation in them” (2023), available at: <https://legalvidhiya.com/conditions-of-probation-and-variation-in-them/> (last accessed 15 January 2024).

26 MI Edokpayi “Suspended sentence: Its desirability in Nigeria” at 5, available at: <https://nigerianlawguru.com/articles/suspended-sentence-its-desirability-in-nigeria> (last accessed 29 January 2025).

27 Ibid.

28 ACJA, sec 455(2).

29 Id, sec 455(3).

30 Id, sec 458(a).

31 Id, sec 458(b).

32 Id, sec 459(1).

33 Id, sec 459(1)–(3) and (5).

34 PPA “Advantages of probation” at 8, available at: <https://probation.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Consolidated-2012-annual-report.pdf> (last accessed 15 January 2024).

35 A Jasper, C Buggeln and L Chapel “Probation officer, role, job description and duties”, available at: <https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-probation-officer-job-description-duties-requirements.html> (last accessed 4 January 2024).

36 iPleaders “Probation officers and their duties under the Probation of Offenders Act” (2020), available at: <https://blog.ipleaders.in/probation-officers-and-their-duties-under-the-probation-of-offenders-act/> (last accessed 16 January 2024).

37 ACJA, sec 457(1)(a)–(d).

38 Id, sec 456.

39 Id, sec 457(2).

40 State v Audu, above at note 7; Mrs Gloria Nya & Mr Louis Nya v Madam Eme Bassey Edem [2005] 4 NWLR (Pt 915) 353.

41 Sama'Ila Ilanma v Aliyu Suleiman [2021] 11 NWLR (Pt 1787) 290.

42 Probation of Offenders Law (cap P9, Kwara State Register of Laws), available at: <https://kwaralaws.ng/product/p9probation-of-offenders-law/> (last accessed 18 January 2024).

43 KS Nwankwo “Community service order as an alternative to imprisonment in Lagos State, Nigeria” (Master's dissertation, International Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, 2008) at 40.

44 MA Owoade “Reform of sentencing in Nigeria: A note on compensation, restitution and probation” in S Adetiba (ed) Compensation and Remedies for Victims of Crime (1990, Federal Ministry of Justice) at 123–24.

45 Probation and Aftercare Service Kenya Probation Service: Leading the Way in Africa and Globally (2023) at 4, available at: <https://probation.go.ke/sites/default/files/downloads/Kenya%20Probation%20Service%20FINAL.pdf> (last accessed 18 January 2024).

46 Ibid; DA Owino “The challenges of rehabilitation of ex-prisoners through probation service in Kenya: The case of Machakos County” (Master's dissertation, University of Nairobi, 2016).

47 SM Muteti, SM Katungati and GC Soi, A Study on the Delivery of Community-Based Sentences: The Case of Probation Orders in Kenya (2019, National Crime Research Centre Nairobi) at 129, available at: <https://www.crimeresearch.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/PROBATION-ORDERS-FINAL-REPORT-13th-May-2021-.pdf> (last accessed 19 January 2024); “Strategic plan” (2018–22, Ministry of Interior & Coordination of National Government, State Department for Correctional Services).

48 Probation of Offenders Act (cap 64, Law of Kenya) available at: <http://kenyalaw.org:8181/exist/kenyalex/actview.xql?actid=CAP.%2064> (last accessed 19 January 2024); Muteti, Katungati and Soi, A Study, id at 6.

49 Community Service Orders Act, available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/kl/fileadmin/pdfdownloads/Acts/CommunityServiceOrdersAct_No10of1998.pdf> (sec 12 provides that probation officers appointed under the Probation of Offenders Act shall be community service officers under the Act); Prison Act (cap 90, Laws of Kenya), available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/kl/fileadmin/pdfdownloads/Acts/PrisonsActCap90.pdf> (provides for the meaning of a probation officer and empowers a probation officer authorized by the court to remove from prison any prisoners remanded into custody, for the purpose of making inquiries at the direction of the court. It makes it lawful for the prison officer to hand over such remand prisoners to the probation officer (Prison Act, sec 31(2))); Children Act (cap 586, Laws of Kenya, 2001), available at: <https://kenyalaw.org/kl/fileadmin/pdfdownloads/Acts/ChildrenAct_No8of2001.pdf> (sec 191(1)(c) provides for probation orders as a method of dealing with child offenders; the Act generally makes provision for the probation of children and the children officer's report); Borstal Institutions Act (cap 92, Laws of Kenya), available at: <http://kenyalaw.org:8181/exist/kenyalex/actview.xql?actid=CAP.%2092> (recognizes a probation officer as an authorized officer (sec 2). It also provides for the committal of youth offenders to institutions based on the recommendation of the probation officer and includes the provision of supervision and empowerment support to youth offenders during the post-penal supervision period); Sexual Offences Act (No 6 of 2006, Laws of Kenya), available at: <https://kenyalaw.org/kl/fileadmin/pdfdownloads/Acts/SexualOffencesAct_No3of2006> (sec 39(4) requires that the court should have regard to the report of a probation officer, social worker or other persons before placing a convicted offender who has served part of his / her sentence on long-term supervision); Power of Mercy Act 2011, available at: <https://www.powerofmercy.go.ke/sites/default/files/PowerofMercyAct21of2011%20(Revised%202016).pdf> (sec 19 of the Act makes a person on probation or serving a suspended sentence eligible to file a petition for the exercise of power of mercy); Criminal Procedure Code (cap 75, Laws of Kenya), available at: <http://www.kenyalaw.org/lex/sublegview.xql?subleg=CAP.%2075> (exempts probation officers and others from the liability to serve as assessors under sec 266(k)); Penal Code (cap 63, Laws of Kenya), available at: <https://www.kenyapolice.go.ke/downloads/category/5-acts.html?download=7:penal-code-cap-63> (sec 35 provides for a probation order as an absolute or conditional order which a court can make); Victim Protection Act (No 17 of 2014, Laws of Kenya), available at: <https://statelaw.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Victim-Protection-Act-17-of-2014.pdf> (includes a probation officer as a law enforcement officer); Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act (No 32 of 2011, Laws of Kenya), available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/kl/fileadmin/pdfdownloads/Acts/ProhibitionofFemaleGenitalMutilationAct_No32of2011.pdf> (also defines a law enforcement officer to include a probation officer (sec 2)). All websites last accessed 19 January 2024.

50 Probation of Offenders Act, sec 4(3).

51 Id, sec 4(4).

52 In Kenya, it is required that the probationer shall not be fined with a fine exceeding KES 200; id, sec 8(3)(ii). Note that in Kenya, where the probationer was not convicted or sentenced at the time of his / her default, the court may convict him / her and pass a sentence, but where the court had convicted him / her of the original offence in respect of which the order was made, the court may pass a sentence which it could pass if the probationer had just been convicted before it; id, sec 8(3)(b)(i) and (ii).

53 Id, sec 4(4).

54 Id, sec 6 and ACJA, sec 454(3).

55 Probation of Offenders Act, sec 7.

56 Id, sec 11.

57 Ibid and ACJA, sec 458(a).

58 Probation of Offenders Act, sec 11 and ACJA, sec 458(a)(i).

59 Probation of Offenders Act, sec 11(2)–(5).

60 Id, sec 12 and ACJA, sec 458.

61 Id, sec 12(2).

62 Id, sec 14(1).

63 ACJA, sec 455(1) and Probation of Offenders Act, sec 14(2).

64 Id, sec 5(1) and ACJA sec 454(2)(b).

65 ACJA, sec 457(1).

66 Probation of Offenders Rules, sec 3(a), (c) and (d).

67 Id, sec 3(e).

68 Id, sec 3(f).

69 Id, sec 3(g).

70 Id, sec 3(h) and (i).

71 Republic v JMN [2021] eKLR, available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/211161> (last accessed 24 January 2024).

72 State v FOO [2022] eKLR, available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/228369/> (last accessed 24 January 2024).

73 John Mbugua v Republic [2018], eKLR, available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/166134/> (last accessed 24 January 2024).

74 GOO v Republic [2020], eKLR, available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/191535> (last accessed 26 January 2024).

75 Jackline Agnes v Republic [2004], eKLR, available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/7204> (last accessed 24 January 2024).

76 Jane Gatuya Mugweru v Republic [2020], eKLR, available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/190437/> (last accessed 24 January 2024).

77 Republic v Paul Murina Mbatia [2021], eKLR, available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/217893> (last accessed 24 January 2024).

78 Republic v Johnstone Mutua John alias Kitai [2019], eKLR, available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/188615/> (last accessed 25 January 2024).

79 Republic v Kosicha Kanchora Gura [2020], eKLR, available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/197174/> (last accessed 24 January 2024).

80 Republic v BC [2022] KEHC 17153 (KLR), available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/249953/> (last accessed 25 January 2024).

81 Republic v John Ndung'u Kamau [2021], eKLR, available at: <https://new.kenyalaw.org/akn/ke/judgment/kehc/2021/6033/eng@2021-06-18> (last accessed 24 November 2024).

82 LKF v Republic [2021], eKLR, available at: <http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/217254/> (last accessed 26 January 2024).

83 Republic v Meeme [2023] KEHC 3801 (KLR) (27 April 2023).

84 Muteti, Katungati and Soi, A Study, above at note 47 at 119.

85 Ibid.

86 Omboto, JO “An analysis of probation service order and its application in Kenya” (2022) 10/4 Open Journal of Social Sciences 114CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: <https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=116506> (last accessed 17 May 2024).

87 CA Aben “Factors influencing success of non-custodial sentence in Kenya: A case of Kilifi District in Kilifi County” (Master's dissertation, University of Nairobi, 2011), available at: <http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11295/95358/Adenya_Factors%20influencing%20success%20of%20non%20custodial%20sentence%20in%20Kenya%3A%20a%20case%20of%20Kilifi%20district.pdf> (last accessed 30 January 2024).

88 Muteti, Katungati and Soi, A Study, above at note 47 at 119.

89 Omodanisi, KB “International best practices in custodial sentences and the Nigerian Correctional Service Act 2019” (2020) 11/2 Nnamdi Azikiwe University Journal of International Law and Jurisprudence 120Google Scholar, available at: <https://www.ajol.info/index.php/naujilj/article/view/200383> (last accessed 30 January 2024).

90 Yekini and Salisu “Probation”, above at note 18 at 112.

91 Probation of Offenders Act, sec 4(5), (6) and (8).

92 Yekini and Salisu “Probation”, above at note 18 at 112.

93 Abidemi v FGN [2022] LPELR-57361(CA) at 53–58.

94 Ekpo v State [1982] 1 NCR 34; SLAP v Attorney General of the Federation [1968] NMLR 326; Asakitikpi v State [1993] 5 NWLR (Pt 296) 641.

95 Egunjobi v FRN [2002] FWLR (Pt 105) 896; State v John [2013] 12 NWLR (Pt 1368) 337.

96 Probation of Offenders Law, above at note 42.

97 Owoade “Reform of sentencing”, above at note 44 at 124.

98 Yakubu v FRN [2022] LPELR-57749 (SC) at 39.

99 “Probation and Aftercare Department Service”, available at: <https://www.probation.go.ke> (last accessed 30 January 2024).