The body of literature devoted to diachronic approaches within Construction Grammar has certainly gained prominence over the last few decades (see e.g. Hilpert Reference Hilpert2013; Traugott & Trousdale Reference Traugott and Trousdale2013; Barðdal et al. Reference Barðdal, Smirnova, Sommerer and Gildea2015). As a result, Diachronic Construction Grammar has become a dynamic field, offering new and compelling insights into the development of particular constructions and into the broader theory of language change. Professor Elizabeth Closs Traugott has played a pivotal role in this paradigm shift, as she transitioned from grammaticalization theory (Hopper & Traugott Reference Hopper and Traugott2003) to embrace the constructionalist approaches she currently employs (see e.g. Traugott Reference Traugott, Joseph and Janda2003; Traugott & Trousdale Reference Traugott and Trousdale2013; Traugott Reference Traugott2022).
The present volume stems from a series of lectures delivered in May 2021 as part of the 20th China International Forum on Cognitive Linguistics (CIFCL). This publication marks volume 27 in the collection published under the auspices of the CIFCL, a series which aims to invite ‘eminent international scholars to give lectures on their original contributions to the field of cognitive linguistics’. As noted by the series editors in their preface, the volume comprises the ‘transcribed version of the lectures given by Professor Traugott’. These transcriptions were supervised and completed by Traugott, who confirms that, although there were some minor corrections to the transcriptions, the text in the published version barely differs from her actual spoken lectures.
Like other books in the series, this publication includes supplementary materials in the form of the original PowerPoint presentations and audio recordings; these resources are readily available online free of charge. In the print edition, QR codes are provided on the first page of each chapter, granting readers convenient access to the materials, which enables interested readers to follow along if they wish to do so. In the e-book version, these QR codes are clickable, facilitating automatic access to the supplementary materials. Furthermore, the e-book contains an appendix (pp. 215 ff.) with all of the presentation slides.
The book consists of ten chapters, each corresponding to one of the lectures. Its primary objective is to provide a systematic account on how to integrate pragmatics into cognitive linguistics and Diachronic Construction Grammar, areas that have traditionally overlooked pragmatics. Therefore, by focusing specifically on Discourse Structuring Markers (DSMs), Traugott tries to present a systematic framework to incorporate ‘more pragmatics into Construction Grammar’ (p. 1).
Chapter 1, ‘Introduction and goals’ (pp. 1–18), provides a general overview of the key topics covered throughout the lecture series. Traugott briefly introduces the basic tenets of cognitive linguistics and cognitive Construction Grammar, alongside discussions on the role of pragmatics within cognitive linguistics. She outlines her main goals, which are summarized as three aims and one overarching goal. The author first aims to explore what ‘knowledge of language’ consists of through the study of Discourse Structuring Markers (DSMs). Second, she endeavors to infuse more pragmatics into the constructional exploration of language, advocating for the inclusion of Discourse Markers (DMs) as part of grammar. Third, she aims to discuss how Diachronic Construction Grammar can explain changes in our ‘knowledge of language’. The overarching goal, as articulated by Traugott herself, is ‘to develop a coherent cognitive perspective on changing knowledge of an important but understudied part of language use, DSMs like all the same, after all, but and many others’ (p. 2). In essence, this chapter serves to familiarize the reader with cognitive and constructional approaches to language, paving the way for more in-depth discussions in chapters 2 and 3, which provide a remarkable introduction to these perspectives in relation to language change.
In chapter 2, ‘Essentials of a historical perspective on language’ (pp. 19–38), Traugott first introduces language change to then focus more specifically on the distinction between constructionalization and constructional change. She addresses some of the criticism in response to Traugott & Trousdale's (Reference Traugott and Trousdale2013) definition of constructionalization as ‘the creation of formnew-meaningnew (combinations of) signs’ (Reference Traugott and Trousdale2013: 22) and of constructional change as ‘a change affecting one internal dimension of a construction’ which ‘does not involve the creation of a new node’ (Reference Traugott and Trousdale2013: 26). The primary criticism revolves around the idea that changes which only affect one component of a construction are uncommon (p. 32). In response, constructionalization is redefined as ‘the establishment of a new symbolic association of form and meaning which has been replicated across a network of language users’ (p. 33). Additionally, Traugott discusses the concept of pre-constructionalization, defined as the ‘gradual accumulation of contextual restrictions prior to structural reorganization’ (p. 34) (e.g. loss of compositionality within a construction), and post-constructionalization, defined as the ‘process of propagation across linguistic contexts’, and which are characterized as ‘tendencies’ (p. 35) (e.g. increase or decrease in frequency). Both pre-constructionalizations and post-constructionalizations are considered constructional changes, which Traugott redefines as ‘[m]odulations of contextual uses prior to and following constructionalization’ (p. 38).
Chapter 3 offers a comprehensive comparison between grammaticalization and constructionalization, as indicated by its title (‘Grammaticalization and constructionalization compared’, pp. 39–59). Traugott first explores grammaticalization, paying special attention to the concept of unidirectionality and its associated limitations. Following this, the author proceeds to compare the two approaches. Traugott asserts that, while both perspectives are complementary, they often pose different questions and examine different sets of data. Nonetheless, there are areas in which grammaticalization and constructionalization overlap, particularly when it comes to changes from lexical to grammatical functions. As the author claims, however, ‘[i]f you do grammaticalization you think mainly about reduction. If you do constructionalization you think mainly about expansion’ (p. 59).
Chapter 4, ‘Discourse Structuring Markers, including Discourse Markers’ (pp. 60–78), serves as an introduction to Pragmatic Markers (PMs) and, more specifically, to DSMs and DMs. After briefly surveying the terminology that has been used to describe PMs, Traugott offers a succinct characterization before delving into the specifics of DSMs and DMs. The distinction between the two is illustrated with the development of after all, which can function as both a DSM and a DM. Traugott suggests that it is useful to establish a distinction between those PMs which are relatively monofunctional (e.g. in addition, instead) and those which are multifunctional and relatively pragmatic (e.g. after all, by the way). The former are classified as DSMs, i.e. connectors which signal a linking relationship between discourse segments, while the latter are categorized as DMs.
In English, multifunctional DMs often originate from erstwhile monofunctional DSMs, primarily derived from adverbial sources. Concerning adverbials, the author establishes a three-way distinction between circumstantial adverbials (CircAdv, e.g. spatial or temporal adverbials), connectors (which may have DSM functions, linking two discourse segments) and DMs (a subtype of DSMs in her classification). Traugott then outlines a typical trajectory for the development of DSMs in English, where a (spatial or temporal) CircAdv becomes a connector (e.g. DSM) and subsequently a DM (see also Traugott Reference Traugott2020, where the author discusses the development of discourse management markers in a similar vein). Traugott illustrates such development by examining the emergence of the multifunctional DM after all (see also Lewis Reference Lewis, Celle and Huart2007; Traugott Reference Traugott, Bordería and Lamas2018), which evolves from a temporal CircAdv to then be used as a connector – a DSM – and eventually came to be used as a DM whose functions (justification, concession, epistemic emphasis) correlate with its position in the clause (initial, final, medial).
In chapter 5, ‘Some alternative approaches to the development of pragmatic markers’ (pp. 79–100), Traugott provides an overview of various scholarly approaches to the emergence of PMs. Initially, she looks at the grammaticalization hypothesis, a framework in which she herself was previously involved. However, Traugott argues that certain aspects of the development of DSMs are not consistent with the grammaticalization hypothesis. This is because the development of DSMs involves the expansion of the syntactic scope, and DMs tend to be quite mobile, thereby increasing syntactic variability. These tendencies run counter to Lehmann's (Reference Lehmann2015 [1995]) grammaticalization parameters. Secondly, the author examines pragmaticalization and argues that ‘[t]he general consensus nowadays appears to be that pragmaticalization is not needed as a process independent of other types of change’ (p. 88). Rather than positing different processes, Traugott advocates a broader view of grammar, emphasizing that Diachronic Construction Grammar allows for such a comprehensive perspective.
The third hypothesis under scrutiny is the Discourse Grammar hypothesis (Heine et al. Reference Heine, Kaltenböck, Kuteva and Long2021), which proposes a dual-level grammar model comprising sentence grammar (i.e. core grammar) and thetical grammar (i.e. extra-sentential linguistic material like DSMs). In this model, the process whereby elements are transferred from one domain to another is termed ‘cooptation’, and the resulting extra-sentential elements coopted from sentence grammar to thetical grammar are referred to as ‘theticals’. Cooptation is described as a synchronic and instantaneous operation. However, proponents of this theory suggest that cooptation may be followed by grammaticalization. Traugott points out a key issue with this model, namely the lack of evidence for such instantaneous cooptation. Furthermore, she notes that grammaticalized ‘theticals’ develop gradually over time. She concludes the chapter by asserting that there is ‘no reason to prefer a dual-level model of grammar over a mono-level one. Construction Grammar is mono-layered and no distinction is made between SG [=sentence grammar] and TG [=thetical grammar], and there is no imperative to treat expressions that conform to internal constituency of the clause [differently] from those that do not’ (p. 99).
Over the next three chapters, the author zooms in on three distinct subcategories of markers. Chapter 6 (‘Elaboratives’, pp. 101–18) aims to unravel the development of elaborative markers, whose function is to mark a discourse segment as the continuation and expansion of a previous segment. Traugott begins by examining the development of also, which originated in Old English as a manner adverbial. Present-day English also exhibits both coordinating and DSM functions, but its limited multifunctionality precludes it from being classified as a full DM (p. 102). During Middle English, also undergoes constructionalization from a manner CircAdv to a connector (an elaborative DSM). Additionally, Traugott explores the development of further, furthermore, moreover and others like overmore and besides. Although none of these markers have fully developed into multifunctional DMs, they all show evidence of gradual development from spatial and temporal sources through the conceptual metaphor argument is a journey.
In chapter 7 (‘Contrastives’, pp. 119–39) the focus turns to the evolution of four contrastive DSMs: but, instead, all the same and anyway, all of which display significant similarities and differences. While but – the default contrastive in Present-day English – serves as a multifunctional DM, instead, all the same and anyway are monofunctional DSMs. The process by which prepositional but becomes a contrastive DSM is a case of constructionalization. However, its subsequent development into a DM cuing a topic shift represents a constructional change, with no change in form. In contrast, the DSM instead originates from a spatial complex preposition (instead of X). Unlike but, however, instead lacks contextual flexibility (see also Lewis Reference Lewis2011). The historical development of concessive all the same (also discussed in Traugott Reference Traugott2021) is particularly noteworthy, as its connector uses can be traced back to an adjective phrase, and its usage is restricted to written registers. Conversely, the concessive DSM anyway is prevalent in spoken registers. Overall, the chapter shows how the inventory of contrastive DSMs expands (and contracts) over time, as certain constructions become obsolete (e.g. ac) and new constructions develop to join the subschema of contrastives.
Chapter 8, ‘Digressives’ (pp. 140–62), concludes the exploration of specific subtypes of DSMs. Digressive DSMs, which are used to signal a change or topic (an ‘aside’, p. 140), are illustrated with the development of the DMs by the way and oh, by the way (both explored in greater detail in Traugott Reference Traugott2019). The DSM by the way can be traced back to an Old English directional CircAdv (be ðam wege ‘along the way’, p. 144), which was commonly found in the context of talking. By the mid-seventeenth century, it undergoes univerbation and constructionalization, transitioning to a DSM signaling ‘in passing’ (p. 151). This development is enabled by a new metaphorical use (argument is a journey). In the mid-nineteenth century by the way is attested as a hedge, which is consistent with a constructional change to a DM. Regarding the DM combination oh, by the way (OBTW), Traugott offers an account for the emergence of the polite hedge OBTW1, which first appears in nineteenth-century texts, and a more aggressive, pseudo-quotative variant (OBTW2), which is first documented in the twentieth century. The latter development is considered ‘a highly context constrained, pejorative pragmatic enrichment, a post-constructionalization constructional change’ (p. 162).
In chapter 9, ‘Position’ (pp. 163–79), the focus shifts back to theoretical considerations regarding constraints on DM or DSM combinations (i.e. the linear ordering of PMs) and their positioning in the clause. Traugott observes that in English, whenever a DSM and DM combination occurs, the order typically follows the pattern weaker-stronger. Additionally, she notes that several DSMs and DMs with the same function can be combined as long as they adhere to the weaker-stronger constraint (e.g. but by the way but not by the way but) (see also Lohmann & Koops Reference Lohmann, Koops, Kaltenböck, Keizer and Lohmann2016). Furthermore, she suggests that such combinations may become chunked, demonstrated by units like now then and the emerging unit OBTW2. As regards position, Traugott contends that, at least in English, the position relative to the clause is not itself a construction, as no definite predictions can be made in relation to DSMs (including DMs) and specific meanings, although certain tendencies emerge. She questions Goldberg's (Reference Goldberg2003: 223) famous statement ‘it's constructions all the way down’, suggesting that clause position serves as a valuable testing-ground to reassess our understanding of constructions (p. 175).
In chapter 10 (‘Constructional networks, wrap up’, pp. 180–94), Traugott delves into the concept of constructional networks to then summarize the key points from her lecture series. Constructional networks are fundamental to constructional approaches to language, and the way in which such networks should be conceptualized has been a matter of lively debate within the field. Borrowed from neurobiology and artificial intelligence, the concept represents a ‘neuronal web of interrelationships’ (p. 180), aiming to capture connections between micro-constructions and (sub)schemas. However, representing these links can be complex due to the abstract nature of the concept. The more abstract the level, the higher up it will be represented in the hierarchy, which is why constructional networks are usually visualized through vertical taxonomic inheritance networks. Despite this, it remains uncertain whether the particular abstract levels posited in constructional networks accurately reflect the mental operations of speakers, a matter requiring ‘more psycholinguistic work to answer that question’ (p. 182). Traugott then suggests a model for the connector construction ‘with at least four types of DSM, and each type licenses both monofunctional DSMs and multifunctional DMs’ (p. 182). In the latter part of the chapter, the author recaps the main topics covered in each lecture before concluding with an ‘Envoi’ (p. 194). Here, she suggests areas for further research in the field, emphasizing the importance of integrating pragmatics into (Diachronic) Construction Grammar and expanding the studies beyond English to encompass other languages.
The book has numerous strengths indeed, although a caveat must be addressed. It bears significant similarity to Traugott's Discourse Structuring Markers in English: A Historical Constructionalist Perspective on Pragmatics (Reference Traugott2022, John Benjamins), published shortly after the volume here reviewed. Traugott acknowledges this in her preface, noting that the John Benjamins volume was informed by the lecture series. Thus, the present volume can be considered a precursor to the 2022 monograph, which offers a more detailed, in-depth exploration of her arguments. The fact that the volume consists of transcribed lectures is palpable in its educational, accessible style, which closely aligns with oral discourse – the format for which the lectures were conceived. This results in a very fresh and relatable style, enhancing the reader's engagement with the material.
All in all, this book undoubtedly presents a significant contribution to the field of language change in general and to Diachronic Construction Grammar in particular. It successfully incorporates pragmatics into constructionalist models to account for the emergence of Discourse Structuring Markers and Discourse Markers and will set the path for future studies in the field. Moreover, its theoretical insights, mostly based on qualitative research, will certainly guide future corpus-based quantitative studies that will complement and test the hypotheses presented here. The volume is an invaluable resource for students and researchers alike. Given that it is a book based on transcribed lectures, its target readership is advanced undergraduates and graduate students, as well as (historical) cognitive linguists.
