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The influence of upward social comparison on social network sites on middle school students’ depression: A two-wave multiple mediation model

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 January 2025

Mengmeng Yuan ,
Yan Sun Open the ORCID record for Yan Sun [Opens in a new window] ,
Yijin Wang  and
Lei Yu
Mengmeng Yuan
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
Yan Sun*
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
Yijin Wang
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
Lei Yu
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
*
Corresponding author: Yan Sun; Email: sunyan@lnnu.edu.cn.
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Abstract

There is a lack of longitudinal data on the relationship between upward social comparison on social network sites (SNSs) and depression and its underlying mechanisms. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the relationship between upward social comparison on social network sites and depression and analyze the mediating effects of self-concept clarity and self-esteem in this relationship. We employed a two-wave longitudinal design among 1179 Chinese middle school students. The results indicated that : upward social comparison on SNSs predicted middle school students’ depression; Self-concept clarity and self-esteem sequentially mediated the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and middle school students’ subsequent depression. These results suggested that three types of interventions could be effectively used to decrease the risk of depression among middle school students.

Keywords

middle school studentsdepressionupward social comparisonself-concept clarityself-esteem
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , First View , pp. 1 - 9
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Copyright
© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press

Introduction

According to the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) reported in 2024, there had 10.92 hundred million Internet users, with adolescents (ages 12–19) accounting for 14.7%, an increasing from last year (CNNIC, 2024). Social networking sites (SNSs) is a network based social service platform, very popular among middle school students (Lian et al., Reference Lian, Sun, Niu and Zhou2017). SNSs provide information basis for social comparison of middle school students, and have a significant impact on middle school students’ self-evaluation and psychosocial adaptation (Lee, Reference Lee2014; Lian et al., Reference Lian, Yao, Sun and Zhou2018). Meanwhile, while enjoying the great convenience brought by SNSs, the problems they caused should not be overlooked.

Upwrad social comparison and depression

Depression is a serious and common mental health problem and affected about 350 million people worldwide (Liu et al., Reference Liu, He, Wang, Miao, Zheng and Zeng2016). Many researchers have begun to pay more attention to the factors affecting depression and the underlying mechanism in recent years (Alfasi, Reference Alfasi2019; Nouri et al., Reference Nouri, Feizi, Afshar, Hassanzadeh Keshteli and Adibi2019; Wang et al., Reference Wang, Xie, Wang, Lei, Hu and Jiang2019a). Few attempts have been made to identify the underlying mechanisms of how the social comparison orientation in SNSs systematically affects individuals’ psychological well-being (Lee, Reference Lee2022).

Social comparison on SNSs is realized through self-presentation (such as identity status, personal photos and other personal information) of individuals on SNSs (Haferkamp & Krämer, Reference Haferkamp and Krämer2011). The social rank theory suggests that upward social comparison is one of the critical risk factors on depression (Gilbert & Allan, Reference Gilbert and Allan1998; Sloman et al., Reference Sloman, Gilbert and Hasey2003). Previous studies suggested that individuals’ specific experience and their feelings of upward social comparison on SNSs are predictors of depression (Aubry et al., Reference Aubry, Quiamzade and Meier2024; Bouchard et al., Reference Bouchard, Fisher, Carver, Kim and Antoni2019; Feinstein et al.,Reference Feinstein, Hershenberg, Bhatia, Latack, Meuwly and Davila2013; Lian et al., Reference Lian, Sun, Niu and Zhou2017; Niu et al., Reference Niu, Sun, Zhou, Kong and Tian2017; Robinson et al., Reference Robinson, Bonnette, Howard, Ceballos, Dailey, Lu and Grimes2019; Sidani et al., Reference Sidani, Shensa, Escobar-Viera and Primack2020; Tong et al., Reference Tong, Qiu, Lian and Zhang2017; Vogel et al., Reference Vogel, Rose, Okdie, Eckles and Franz2015; Wetherall et al., Reference Wetherall, Robb and O’Connor2019; Yang et al., Reference Yang, Holden and Carter2018; Yoon et al., Reference Yoon, Kleinman, Mertz and Brannick2019) and an experimental study on social comparison on SNSs (Tiggemann et al., Reference Tiggemann, Hayden, Brown and Veldhuis2018) showed that upward social comparisons on SNSs easily result in decreasing in subjective well-being. People more easily feel depressed after spending a great deal of time on Facebook, especially when they comparing themselves to others(Steers et al., Reference Steers, Wickham and Acitelli2014). Although several longitudinal studies have showed the relationship between the two variables, the study by Nesi & Prinstein (Reference Nesi and Prinstein2015) focused on “Technology-Based Social Comparison”, and the research by Feinstein et al. (Reference Feinstein, Hershenberg, Bhatia, Latack, Meuwly and Davila2013) zeroed in on “Facebook”, we aim to observe whether the same longitudinal relationship exists on other social platforms, such as WeChat、QQ. Therefore, T1 upward social comparison on SNSs may be an important predictor of T2 depression (Hypothesis 1).

Self-concept clarity as meditors

Self-concept clarity indicates the extent to which individual defines one’s self-concept clearly and consistently, which represents a clear and stable self-cognition belonging to some kind of internal psychological structure (Campbell et al.,Reference Campbell, Trapnell, Heine, Katz, Lavallee and Lehman1996). Valkenburg and Peter (Reference Valkenburg and Peter2008, Reference Valkenburg and Peter2011) put forward the self-concept fragmentation hypothesis (Niu et al., Reference Niu, Sun, Zhou, Kong and Tian2016; Valkenburg & Peter, Reference Valkenburg and Peter2008, Reference Valkenburg and Peter2011). Social comparison theory also points out that the contrast effect produced by upward social comparison will reduce the level of individual self-evaluation and have a negative impact on individual psychology (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Niu, Fan and Zhou2017; Xing & Yu, Reference Xing and Yu2006). The Stress Process Model suggests self-concepts be examined as a mechanism (i.e., mediator) through which stressors impact mental health (Pearlin, Reference Pearlin1989; Pearlin & Schooler, Reference Pearlin and Schooler1978), Lin et al. (Reference Lin, Liu, Liu, Hui, Cortina and You2021) has suggested the mediator of self-concept clarity . Some studies have showed that upward social comparison induced by passively using SNSs caused negative emotions (Zhang & Zhou, Reference Zhang and Zhou2018) and negatively affected self-concept clarity (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Niu, Fan and Zhou2017; Niu et al., Reference Niu, Sun, Zhou, Tian, Liu and Lian2016; Scully et al., Reference Scully, Swords and Nixon2023; Vartanian & Dey, Reference Vartanian and Dey2013). Self-concept clarity is predictor of the depression (Lee-Flynn et al., Reference Lee-Flynn, Pomaki, DeLongis, Biesanz and Puterman2011; Lin et al., Reference Pearlin2021; Seo et al., Reference Seo, Lee and Wesbecher2022). Therefore, we assumed that self-concept clarity would mediate the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depression (Hypothesis 2).

Self-esteem as meditors

Self-esteem refers to an individual’s subjective evaluation of his or her worth as a person (Donnellan et al., Reference Donnellan, Trzesniewski, Robins, Chamorro-Premuzic, von Stumm and Furnham2011; MacDonald & Leary, Reference MacDonald, Leary, Leary and Tangney2012). As an important psychological merit, self-esteem is a central component of the self that refers to how people feel about themselves (Kernis, Reference Kernis2003). Upward social comparison on SNSs has a negative impact on self-esteem (Gao et al., Reference Gao, Guo, Yan, Wang, Zhan, Li and Wang2022; Lee, Reference Lee2022; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Niu, Fan and Zhou2017; Niu et al., Reference Niu, Sun, Zhou, Kong and Tian2016). Vogel et al. (Reference Vogel, Rose, Roberts and Eckles2014) also have provided direct experimental evidence of social comparison’s causal impact on self-esteem. And low level of self-esteem is also an important risk factor leading to individual depression (Orth et al., Reference Orth, Robins, Trzesniewski, Maes and Schmitt2009). Numerous studies have demonstrated that the upward social comparison could reduce a person’s self-evaluation and self-esteem level, increase the risk of depression (Marsh & Parker, Reference Marsh and Parker1984; Morse & Gergen, Reference Morse and Gergen1970). Although several studies have shown the mediating role of self-esteem between upward social comparison and depression (Alfasi, Reference Alfasi2019; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Niu, Fan and Zhou2017; Ozimek & Bierhoff, Reference Ozimek and Bierhoff2020), the level of self-esteem will change over time (Birkeland et al., Reference Birkeland, Melkevik, Holsen and Wold2012; Erol & Orth, Reference Erol and Orth2011), so it is necessary to explore the longitudinal mediating role of self-esteem. Therefore, we assumed that self-esteem would mediate the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depression (Hypothesis 3).

Self-concept clarity and self-esteem

Self-concept clarity is an important predictor of self-esteem (Blazek & Besta, Reference Blazek and Besta2012; DeMarree & Rios, Reference DeMarree and Rios2014; Ford & Collins, Reference Ford and Collins2010; Guerrettaz et al., Reference Guerrettaz, Chang, von Hippel, Carroll and Arkin2014; Kong et al., Reference Kong, Qin, Huang, Zhang and Lei2020; Li et al., Reference Li, Zha, Liang, Yang and Zheng2017; Lodi-Smith & DeMarree, Reference Lodi-Smith and DeMarree2018; Streamer & Seery, Reference Streamer and Seery2015; Wu et al., Reference Wu, Watkins and Hattie2010; Xu et al., Reference Xu, Han and Liu2023), indicating that people must possess sufficient self-concept clarity to efficiently evaluate their own worth in terms of self-esteem (Weber et al., Reference Weber, Hopwood, Nissen and Bleidorn2023). Wong et al. (Reference Wong, Vallacher and Nowak2016) used a computer mouse procedure and found that participants with higher self-concept clarity (signaling a well-integrated system) had positive self-esteem attractors and weaker self-esteem repellers. In particular, the results of longitudinal studies suggest that self-concept clarity states positively predicted subsequent global self-esteem states (Filosa et al., Reference Filosa, Sommovigo, Tavolucci, Rosa, Alivernini, Baiocco and Alessandri2024).

In addition, self-concept clarity belongs to the structural level of self-concept (Campbell et al., Reference Campbell, Trapnell, Heine, Katz, Lavallee and Lehman1996; You & Shin, Reference You and Shin2019), such as “I often have conflicting views on myself,” whereas self-esteem belongs to the content level, such as “How do I feel about myself?” (Wong et al., Reference Wong, Vallacher and Nowak2016; You & Shin, Reference You and Shin2019). In addition, according to group dynamics theory (Vallacher et al., Reference Vallacher, Van Geert and Nowak2015; Wong et al., Reference Wong, Vallacher and Nowak2016), the structure of a system will affect its content. Thus, self-concept clarity affects self-esteem (Filosa et al., Reference Filosa, Sommovigo, Tavolucci, Rosa, Alivernini, Baiocco and Alessandri2024; Wong et al., Reference Wong, Vallacher and Nowak2016), indicating that people must possess sufficient self-concept clarity to efficiently evaluate their own worth in terms of self-esteem (Weber et al., Reference Weber, Hopwood, Nissen and Bleidorn2023). Individuals with low self-concept clarity often experience heightened negative emotions (Campbell et al., Reference Campbell, Trapnell, Heine, Katz, Lavallee and Lehman1996). Refer to previous studies, the sequential mediating effect of self-concept clarity and self-esteem between other variables has been suggested (Kong et al., Reference Kong, Lan, Zhang, Sun and Zhang2021; Rahim et al., Reference Rahim, Mooren, van den Brink, Knipscheer and Boelen2021; Wang et al., Reference Wang, Yan, Liu, Lu, Luo and Ding2024). Therefore, we assumed that self-concept clarity and self-esteem may sequentially mediate the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depression (Hypothesis 4).

The current study

As indicated by previous research, upward social comparison on SNSs, self-concept clarity, and self-esteem are important factors influencing depression. However, few studies have simultaneously examined the mechanisms through which these variables contribute to depression, and prior research has relied on cross-sectional (eg. Kong et al., Reference Kong, Lan, Zhang, Sun and Zhang2021; Lian et al., Reference Lian, Sun, Niu and Zhou2017; Niu et al., Reference Niu, Sun, Zhou, Kong and Tian2016) or experimental manipulation methods (eg. Alfasi, Reference Alfasi2019; Vogel et al., Reference Vogel, Rose, Okdie, Eckles and Franz2015), relatively fewer longitudinal studies. Given that self-concept clarity and self-esteem can fluctuate over time (Becht et al., Reference Becht, Nelemans, Van Dijk, Branje, Van Lier, Denissen and Meeus2017; Birkeland et al., Reference Birkeland, Melkevik, Holsen and Wold2012; Erol & Orth, Reference Erol and Orth2011; Lodi-Smith et al., Reference Lodi-Smith and DeMarree2017; Van Dijk et al., Reference Van Dijk, Branje and Keijsers2014), it is necessary to design short-term tracking study to test the stability of the mediating effects of self-concept clarity and self-esteem. The tracking study can effectivly verify the correctness of the transfer chain sequence of “independent variable→mediating variable→dependent variable.” Therefore, it is necessary to delve further into them from a longitudinal angle to better explore the temporal correctness of the transmission between variables (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Du, Fang and Wen2022).

We tested the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depression using the longitudinal method. We assumed that self-concept clarity and self-esteem may sequentially mediate the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depression (see Figure 1).

Methods

Participant

Participants included Chinese students from three middle school in two provinces of China. This investigation was approved by the authors’ University Ethics Committee. Before the data collection, the examiner introduced the instruction to teachers and students, and explained the principle of confidentiality to them. Then, informed consent was obtained from middle school students and their teachers. Time 1 and Time 2 data were collected in December 2021 and June 2022, respectively. During the first assessment, the initial sample included 1257 Chinese students. A total of 1210 (96.25%) students completed the Upward social comparison on SNSs Scale. At Time 2, 1179 Chinese students from 1210 students who have participated in the first assessment completed the Self-concept Clarity Scale, Self-esteem Scale and Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). The drop-out rate was 2.6%. For the final sample, 46% were females and 54% were males, 86.3% of them were from villages or towns and 13.8% were from urban areas, and their mean age was 15.05 (SD = 1.64), ranging from 12 to 19.

Measure

Upward social comparison on SNSs

To measure upward social comparison on SNSs, we employed the upward social comparison subscale of Chinese version of Iowa-Netherlands comparison orientation measure as earlier described (Bai et al., Reference Bai, Liu and Liu2013; Gibbons & Buunk, Reference Gibbons and Buunk1999). This scale, has been previously applied in studies on Chinese undergraduate students, and proven to have good reliability and validity (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Niu, Fan and Zhou2017; Liu et al., Reference Liu, He and Li2019; Niu et al., Reference Niu, Sun, Zhou, Kong and Tian2016).The scale has 6 items (such as “On social network sites, I always like comparing myself with others who are better off”), using a 5-point scale, from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher scores implied higher upward social comparison on SNSs. In this study, the index of CFA suggested a good fit: χ2/df = 3.854, p < .001, RMSEA = 0.142, NFI = 0.89, RFI = 0.75, IFI = 0.90,TLI = 0.776, CFI = 0.90, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.857.

Self-concept clarity

The scale was developed by Campbell et al. (Reference Campbell, Trapnell, Heine, Katz, Lavallee and Lehman1996) and revised by Niu et al. (Reference Niu, Sun, Zhou, Kong and Tian2016). The scale has 12 items (such as “often have conflicting views on myself”), using a 7-point scale, from 1 (very inconsistent) to 7 (very consistent). The total score indicates the degree of self-concept clarity of middle school students. It is used widely and has good reliability and validity (Filosa et al., Reference Filosa, Sommovigo, Tavolucci, Rosa, Alivernini, Baiocco and Alessandri2024; Lin et al., Reference Lin, Liu, Liu, Hui, Cortina and You2021; Usborne & Taylor, Reference Usborne and Taylor2010; Wang et al., Reference Wang, Yan, Liu, Lu, Luo and Ding2024; Wu & Watkins, Reference Wu and Watkins2009; Yang et al., Reference Yang, van den Bos, Zhang, Adams and Ybarra2022). In this study, the index of CFA suggested a good fit: χ2/df = 4.611, p < .001, RMSEA = 0.080, NFI = 0.839, RFI = 0.803, IFI = 0.855,TLI = 0.822, CFI = 0.855, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.810.

Self-esteem

The scale was established by Rosenberg (Reference Becht, Nelemans, Van Dijk, Branje, Van Lier, Denissen and Meeus1965), which included 10 questions (such as “I feel that I have many good qualities”), using a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (very inconsistent) to 4 (very consistent). Among them, the item “I hope I can earn more respect for myself” was a serious social desire among Chinese populations. Thus, some studies suggested that deleting this item will improve the scale’s reliability and validity (Chen et al., Reference Chen, Yan and Lin2013; Tian, Reference Tian2006). Thus, the self-esteem scale in the current study comprises nine items. The total score of the scale indicated the degree of self-esteem. The revised scale has excellent reliability and validity (Kong et al., Reference Kong, Lan, Zhang, Sun and Zhang2017; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Niu, Fan and Zhou2017; Tian, Reference Tian2006). In this study, the index of CFA suggested a good fit: χ2/df = 3.076, p < .001, RMSEA = 0.128, NFI = 0.865, RFI = 0.820, IFI = 0.871,TLI = 0.827, CFI = 0.871, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.868.

Depression

Depression was measured by the the Chinese version of The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D, Radloff, Reference Radloff1977), which consists of 20 items. Each item was rated on a 4-point scale (1 = never, 4 = always), with higher scores representing worse conditions on depression. The CES-D has been used in Chinese sample with good reliability and validity (Dwyer et al., Reference Dwyer, Wenhui, Cysique, Brew, Lal, Bain and Wright2014; Tian et al., Reference Tian, Yang and Pan2022; Wan et al., Reference Wan, Yang, Liu, Zhang, Liu, Jia and Wang2022; Yang et al., Reference Yang, Soong, Kuo, Chang and Chen2004; Zhu & Chiu, Reference Zhu and Chiu2021). In this study, the index of CFA suggested a good fit: χ2/df = 5.301, p < .001, RMSEA = 0.083, NFI = 0.822, RFI = 0.757, IFI = 0.835, TLI = 0.774, CFI = 0.834, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.861.

Statistical analyses

First, all data collected in this study was recorded on a computer and processed using SPSS 23.0. Outliers and missing data (<0.1%) were handled with mean imputation, which replaced missing values with the mean of the score of the item to which the missing data belonged. Second, we examined whether our data followed a normal distribution. The skewness and kurtosis of middle school students’ upward social comparison on SNSs, self-concept clarity, self-esteem, and depression were −0.169 and −0.824, 0.359 and 0.137, −0.073 and 0.138, 0.838 and 0.702, and 0.39 and −0.23, which fell within the acceptable range (Skewness cutoff of 2.0 and kurtosis cutoff of 7.0) (Curran et al., Reference Curran, West and Finch1996). Thus, our data followed a normal distribution. Thus, the measure scores were used in our analyses. Third, factor analysis was used to conduct a common variance analysis to test for common method biases (Zhou & Long, Reference Zhou and Long2004). After the principal component analysis, 10 eigenvalues greater than 1 were extracted, and the first factor to explain the variance was 19.90%, demonstrating that the current study did not have major issues with common method biases. Fourth, independent sample t-test, descriptive statistics, and Pearson correlation analysis were used to analyze the relationships among research variables and demographic variables preliminarily. Fifth, structural equation modeling (SEM) of Amos 23.0 was employed to test the proposed multiple mediation model. Finally, a bootstrap procedure of Amos 23.0 was used based on 5000 resamples to test the mediating effects of self-concept clarity and self-esteem in the associations of upward social comparison on SNSs with depression.

Results

Correlation analysis

The descriptive statistics and the correlation matrix of all variables are presented in Table 1. Respectively. T-tests indicated that males, compared to females, showed significantly higher levels of self-concept clarity (t = 3.835, p < .001), and self-esteem (t = 3.089, p = 0.002).but showed significantly lower levels of (t = −4.265, p < .001). upward social comparison on SNSs (T1), self-concept clarity (T2), self-esteem (T2), and depression (T2) were significantly positively or negatively correlated with each other (p < .01), upward social comparison on SNSs (T1) and depression (T2) were significantly correlated with age (p < .01). Thereby, we included age as a covariate in subsequent analyses.

Table 1. Related analysis results of the variables

Note.**p<0.01.

Model testing

To further investigate how upward social comparison on SNSs would influence middle school students’ depression, we assigned self-concept clarity and self-esteem as mediating variables, upward social comparison on SNSs as independent variables, and middle school students’ depression as the dependent variable, to establish a multiple mediation model (Figure 2). The present study inplemented an approach of SEM to test the multiple mediation model (Estimator = ML). In the multiple mediation model, the gender and age of the participants were controlled. Then, we examined the degree of fit of the model.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework linking upward social comparison on social network sites to depression.

Figure 2. The mediation model M (n = 1179). USC on social network sites (SNSs)=upward social comparison on SNSs, SCC = self-concept clarity,***p < .001;**p < .005.

Figure 2 reports the results of the mediation model, it showed that upward social comparison on SNSss significantly predicted adolescent’ depression directly and via the mediating effects of self-concept clarity and self-esteem. Test of the mediation model generated a very favorable fit with, χ2/df = 4.006, RMSEA = 0.051, CFI = 0.803, TLI = 0884, IFI = 0.906, RFI = 0.939, NFI = 0.855.

Bootstrap test of the mediating effect

The current study tested the significance of indirect effects using a bootstrap test. The standardized indirect effects and 95% confidence interval of the 3 mediating paths and total indirect effects are listed in Table 2. According to the bootstrap test, when the path coefficient of a 95% confidence interval did not include 0, the indirect effect was significant. Therefore, the results revealed that three mediating effects were significant. That is, upward social comparison on SNSs was positively and significantly associated with middle school students’ depression via the parallel and sequential mediating effect of self-concept clarity and self-esteem.

Table 2. Decomposition table of mediate effect

Note. Boot SE, Boot LLCI, and Boot ULCI refer to the standard error, lower limit, and upper limit of 95% confidence interval of the indirect effect estimated by percentile bootstrap method through deviation correction,respectively.Ind 1:Upward social comparison on SNSs→Self-concept clarity→depression; Ind 2:Upward social comparison on SNSs→Self-esteem→depression;Ind 3: Upward social comparison on SNSs→Self-oncept clarity→Self-esteem→depression.

Additional analyses

When including autoregressive effects of mediator variables, the negative relationship between T1 upward social comparison on SNSs and T2 self-concept clarity (β = −.22, p = .003) as well as T2 self-esteem remained significant(β = −.41, p = .002). Autoregressive effects were likewise significant.

Additionally, including autoregressive effects of the outcome variables at T1 resulted in significant relationships between T2 self-concept clarity and T2 depression (β = −.78, p < .001), and between T2 self-esteem and T2 depression remained negative significant (β = −.28, p = .002). Outcome variables at T1 significantly predicted outcome variables at T2.

Testing for reversed causation regarding the relationship between T1 upward social comparison on SNSs and T2 self-concept clarity / T2 self-esteem revealed that T1 self-concept clarity (β = −.10, p = .432) and T1 self-esteem (β = −.01, p = .871) did not predict T2 upward social comparison on SNSs. AS well as, the results of reversed causation between T1 self-concept clarity and T2 self-esteem revealed that self-concept clarity more strongly predicted self-esteem (β SE-SCC = .33, p = .003; β SCC-SE = .74, p < .001; β SCC-SE > β SE-SCC). Only T1 upward social comparison on SNSs predicted T2 upward social comparison on SNSs (β = .86, p < .001).

Discussion

Upward social comparison on SNSs and depression

The present study showed that upward social comparison on SNSs positively predicted middle school students’ depression and supported Hypothesis 1. The association between upward social comparison on SNSs and depression has also been suggested by some researches (Appel et al., Reference Appel, Crusius and Gerlach2015, Reference Appel, Gerlach and Crusius2016; Feinstein et al., Reference Feinstein, Hershenberg, Bhatia, Latack, Meuwly and Davila2013; Lian et al., Reference Lian, Sun, Niu and Zhou2017). Our findings are also consistent with them. On SNSs, middle school students are more likely to become the target of positive messages posted by other users, prompting them to make more social comparisons (Haferkamp & Kramer, Reference Haferkamp and Krämer2011; Kim & Chock, Reference Kim and Chock2015; Lee, Reference Lee2014). Based on these results, this study further reveals that using SNSs increases the risk for depression through negative social comparison. Therefore, using SNSs does not necessarily cause negative effects, but the concrete behaviors and feelings, such as upward social comparison, induced by affect individuals’ psychological adaption may be a key factor (Niu et al., Reference Niu, Sun, Zhou, Kong and Tian2016).

The mediating roles of self-concept clarity

As we suspected, findings from the mediation model of self-concept clarity showed that upward social comparison on SNSs frustrated middle school students’ depression, which supported Hypothesis 2. This finding indicated that upward social comparison on SNSs could possibly reduce middle school students’ levels of self-concept clarity, easily eliciting their excessive depressive mood. Because upward social comparison can make the individual self-assessment level deviate from the comparison of the goal, is more likely to below target level, individual self-assessment may become more negative (Collins, Reference Collins1996; Vogel et al., Reference Vogel, Rose, Roberts and Eckles2014; Xing & Yu, Reference Xing and Yu2006). And individuals with low self-concept clarity have less stable and uncertain self-knowledge, tending to experience self-confusion when life events occur, leading to a higher level of depression (Li et al., Reference Lian, Sun, Niu and Zhou2017). Thus, upward social comparison on SNSs more likely to weaken middle school students’ self-concept clarify during overlooking the information on SNSs (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Niu, Fan and Zhou2017).

The mediating roles of self-esteem

Findings also showed upward social comparison on SNSs significantly predicted middle school students’ depression through the mediating role of self-esteem, which suggested that upward social comparison on SNSs could reduce the self-esteem of middle school students and further lead to depression. This finding, which supported Hypothesis 3, was consistent with those of previous studies (Alfasi, Reference Alfasi2019; Niu et al., Reference Niu, Sun, Zhou, Kong and Tian2016), was also consistent with prior research indicating the effect of upward social comparison on SNSs on self-esteem (Lee, Reference Lee2014) and the effect of self-esteem on depression (Bajaj et al., Reference Bajaj, Robins and Pande2016; Michalak et al., Reference Michalak, Teismann, Hidenreich, Strohle and Vocks2011; Sowislo & Orth, Reference Sowislo and Orth2013). Besides, the mediating effect of self-esteem in the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and symptoms of depression also coincides with the viewpoints of social comparison theory (Liu, Zhou, Yang, Niu, Tian & Fan, Reference Liu, Niu, Fan and Zhou2017). As mentioned above, middle school students should be given more support and encouragement to help improve their self-esteem, reducing the negative effects of upward social comparison on SNSs and the risk of depression.

The sequential mediating effect of self-concept clarity and self-esteem

Lastly, the delayed serial mediation model of self-concept clarity and self-esteem is validated, which supported Hypothesis 4. Specifically, SNSs tend to present more positive information, more easily fostering an environment conducive to upward social comparison. Prolonged exposure to such an online environment can easily destabilize the already fragile self-concept structure of middle school students, more likely to leading to negative self-evaluation, and greatly increases the risk of depression. As previously mentioned, upward social comparison on SNSs undermines the clarification of self-concept when confronted with information on these platforms (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Niu, Fan and Zhou2017). Given that adolescents’ self-concept structure is inherently unstable, excessive reliance on external information can threaten and disrupt their self-concept, resulting in decreased overall self-evaluation and self-esteem (Emery et al., Reference Emery, Walsh and Slotter2015; Quinones & Kakabadse, Reference Quinones and Kakabadse2015). Relevant longitudinal studies also indicated that low self-esteem is one of the most significant risk factors for depression (Michalak, Teismann, Heidenreich, Strohle & Vocks, Reference Michalak, Teismann, Hidenreich, Strohle and Vocks2011; Sowislo & Orth, Reference Sowislo and Orth2013). Our results also enrich the group dynamics theory, the structure of a system influences its content (Vallacher et al., Reference Vallacher, Van Geert and Nowak2015; Wong et al., Reference Wong, Vallacher and Nowak2016). Consequently, self-concept clarity exerts an influence on self-esteem, and self-esteem serves as a potent predictor of depression (Orth et al., Reference Orth, Robins and Roberts2008, Reference Orth, Robins, Trzesniewski, Maes and Schmitt2009).

Limitations and implications

The current study has some limitations. First, it should be acknowledged that all the measures in this study are self-reported and thus may be subject to respondent bias. However, middle school students themselves may be reliable source when it comes to reporting on their own experiences and feelings (Trompetter et al., Reference Trompetter, de Kleine and Bohlmeijer2017; Wu et al., Reference Wu, Hou, Zeng, Cai and You2021). Second, no causal relationships can be determined given the correlational nature of the study. It is also hard to determine the direction of associations between study variables with only two waves of data.

The present study constructed a longitudinal and serial mediation model to explain the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depression among Chinese middle school students, and to some extent clarify how upward social comparison on SNSs affects Chinese middle school students’ depression and enrich theories about depression. In practice, our findings indicated that the intervention or protection of depression can be established through four different aspects: First, our results also emphasized the importance of reducing upward social comparison on SNSs in the intervention of depression. Exposure to so-called “superior” otherson social media leads people to evaluate themselves in a more negative light (McComb, Vanman, & Tobin, Reference McComb, Vanman and Tobin2023); Second, self-concepts may play a role in specific types of psychotherapy, such as cognitive behavioral therapy, motivational enhancement therapy, and humanistic therapy (Reed-Fitzke, Reference Reed-Fitzke2020); Third, self-esteem levels can be improved through learning and training (Chen et al., Reference Chen, Niu, Zhang, Fan, Tian and Zhou2016; Golshiri et al., Reference Golshiri, Mostofi and Rouzbahani2023), it may be effective to diminish the negative effects of upward social comparison on SNSs by enhancing self-esteem (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Niu, Fan and Zhou2017). Finally, improving adolescents’ self-esteem and self-concept clarify together is one of the effective ways to help depressed students improve their self-identity. For example, fully understanding the client’s self-concept to help the client recognize and accept himself or herself to improve the mental health level (Li et al., Reference Liu, Niu, Fan and Zhou2024).

Conclusion

This study showed that self-concept clarity and self-esteem play mediating roles, through multiple paths, in the influence of upward social comparison on SNSs on depression. As we suspected, self-concept clarity and self-esteem mediate the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and middle school students’ depression parallel and sequential ways, suggesting that self-concept clarity and self-esteem can effectively help improve the level of middle school students’ depression.

Data availability

The datasets used or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Acknowledgements

Thanks to all the participants who participated in the study and the teachers who helped with the data collection, thanks to the reviewers’ valuable suggestions.

Author contributions

YMM: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Methodology; Visualization; Writing – original draft. SY: Conceptualization; Funding acquisition; Project administration; Software; Supervision; Writing – Reviewing and editing. WYJ & YL: Resources; Investigation; Validation.

Funding statement

This work was supported by the National Social Science Fund of China for Education (BHA220134). The title of the funding project is “Factors influencing depressive tendencies and intervention strategies of middle school students from the perspective of emotion regulation framework”.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

The procedures for human participants involved in this study are consistent with the ethical standards of the authors’ institution.

Consent to Participants

Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.

Consent for publication

All authors agreed to public this manuscript.

Code availability

The code used for analyzing data are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Figure 0

Table 1. Related analysis results of the variables

Figure 1

Figure 1. Conceptual framework linking upward social comparison on social network sites to depression.

Figure 2

Figure 2. The mediation model M (n = 1179). USC on social network sites (SNSs)=upward social comparison on SNSs, SCC = self-concept clarity,***p < .001;**p < .005.

Figure 3

Table 2. Decomposition table of mediate effect