In his short but insightful book entitled Twelve Infallible Men, Matthew Pierce documents the formation of Twelver Shii identity through an examination of collective biographical works. These sources convey the community's remembrance of its past and reflect its dynamic and evolving beliefs.
In chapter 1, Pierce defines collective biographies through a survey of the different genres of early Muslim historical writing. The chapter ends with detailed descriptions of the five collective biographical works, composed between the fourth/tenth and sixth/twelfth centuries, that lie at the heart of the study.
Chapter 2 focuses on the related themes of martyrdom and consolation. Pierce notes the pervasiveness of these ideas in the source material and connects them to early views of the Imamate. In one section, he argues that poisoning claims surrounding the ninth Imam (al-Jawād) were part of a broad homogenizing project in which the Imams increasingly “functioned as a type” (p. 51). Pierce also connects reports of the grief of the fourth Imam (al-Sajjād) to gendered notions of emotion/mourning, and emphasizes the consoling function of elegies for the Twelver Shii community.
Chapter 3 interprets treachery/betrayal accounts as means for differentiating the Twelver Shia from their opponents. This view finds support in a number of examples, including: the death of the third Imam (al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī), the community's betrayal of the Prophet after his death, the appointment/murder of the eighth Imam (al-Riḍā), the sixth Imam's (al-Ṣādiq) encounters with extremists, and reports about the brother of the eleventh Imam (al-Askarī). The chapter also includes an analysis of the murder of the second Imām (al-Ḥasan b. ʿAlī) in which deception/trickery functions as a “feminine” category that is applied to the enemies of the Twelver Shia.
In chapter 4, Pierce formally addresses issues of body and gender. He contrasts the virtue and manliness embedded in depictions of the Imams' bodies with the perversion of justice characteristic of the ruling authorities (p. 94). The fifth Imam (al-Bāqir) is associated with “masculine” attributes such as love for/protection of his followers and the fathering of male children, while the ʿAbbāsid caliph bears “all the markings of an emasculated leader” (p. 102). Pierce also views the miracles of the seventh Imam (al-Kāẓim) as measures for reassuring the Twelver Shia about their (eventual) triumph over their enemies. The chapter concludes with an examination of female figures (primarily Fāṭima, the daughter of the Prophet) who serve as models for a “feminized devotion” to the Imams (for men) and as models of femininity (for women) (pp. 123–4).
Chapter 5 explores the cosmological dimensions of the depictions of the Twelver Shii Imams. After a discussion of their primordial existence, Pierce presents a particularly interesting section that details accounts of the Imams' mothers. These reports ignore social and class distinctions and, instead, focus on their protection of “sexual purity” as symbols of their virtue (p. 141). In the concluding section, Pierce convincingly shows that accounts of the Imams' infancy/childhood were designed to justify the community's devotion to child Imams.
The most significant contribution of Pierce's book involves its modelling of a new approach to the study of early Islam grounded in memory studies. Specifically, he highlights the utility of literary biographical works that reflect a community's sense of self at specific moments in time. Such an approach has the potential to provide greater historical insight than studies centred on theological works or political history. Pierce also demonstrates the value of collective biographies which have received considerable attention in other fields (early Christianity) but remain largely unexplored in early Islamic studies. Finally, Pierce displays a mastery of materials from other historical traditions and effortlessly draws on theoretical works that engage memory, communal identity, gender and literary analysis. This is much needed in a field that is often overly dependent on philological approaches.
A few notable criticisms bear mentioning. The first concerns Pierce's attempts at utilizing a gendered framework in his analysis of the sources. This is most problematic in the chapters 2 and 3 where discussions of masculinity/emasculation and descriptions of feminized characteristics appear out of place and unconvincing. In chapter 2, for example, the association between grief and feminized protest appears strained given that power differentials might provide a more convincing explanation for the depictions of Shii mourning. The jump from a power-based interpretive framework to one centred on gender seems unnecessary and a potentially anachronistic projection of modern categories onto pre-modern texts. A similar criticism may be levelled at the association of trickery with the feminine in chapter 3. The explicit analysis of gender in chapter 4 is more convincing, especially as it pertains to Fāṭima, but there are (again) simpler alternative explanations for reports that emphasize the fathering of male children (e.g. theological necessity) or miracle accounts (e.g. faith at a time of crisis). Sometimes simple context holds more explanatory power than attempts at discerning larger (gendered) patterns in texts composed in a very different world.
A second criticism (ironic given previous comments) centres on the surprising lack of textual analysis in the book. Although sections within chapters are purportedly devoted to textual evidence, they often veer from this goal and lack copious narrative examples. Given the brevity of the book, there is certainly space for more primary source evidence and it is tempting to consider whether the absence was prompted by the comments of an editor or the publisher. If this is the case, it is unfortunate as the inclusion of additional material would give further flesh to a book filled with compelling and interesting arguments.
Overall, Pierce has written an insightful first book that challenges assumptions about the early history of the Twelver Shia through an innovative examination of previously understudied sources. In the process, it fills a notable gap in the study of Shii Islam and models a disciplinary approach that holds considerable promise for future research. This book is an important addition to the blossoming field of Shii studies.
