Hostname: page-component-7b9c58cd5d-bslzr Total loading time: 0.001 Render date: 2025-03-16T21:57:57.989Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Indo-Japanese Collaboration on Energy Security and Critical Raw Materials (CRM)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 March 2025

Saki Isetani ,
Satoka Shimizu ,
Andrew DeWit  and
Rajib Shaw
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

The clean energy transition is complicated by material constraints that threaten national security. Idealized proposals for a rapid decarbonization via a greatly accelerated diffusion of solar, wind, battery and other technologies entails massive amounts of critical raw materials (CRM). These CRM include copper, aluminum, cobalt, lithium, graphite, rare earths, and other minerals and metals. In the international debate, CRM are also referred to as “critical minerals,” “critical strategic minerals,” “battery minerals,” “energy transition metals,” and various other terms. The International Energy Agency (IEA) aggressively supports decarbonization, but also warns that zero-carbon scenarios imply that the energy sector's overall demand for CRM could sextuple by 2040. Japan aims for net-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2050, and India's net-zero target is two decades later. But like all countries, their CRM supply chains are at present unable to satisfy ambitious goals for deploying solar, wind, battery storage, power transmission, and green hydrogen. Multilateral cooperation is imperative to address the growing challenges of CRM, especially their price volatility, security of supply, and Environment, Social, and Governance (ESG) issues. Building a sustainable and diversified global supply chain is crucial to building security in clean energy. One step in this direction was seen in September 2021, when Japan, India and other members of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, or QUAD, signed an agreement for cooperation in procuring rare earths. This paper discusses potential additional cooperation between India and Japan, for bolstering both countries' CRM supply security.

Keywords

Critical Raw MaterialsDecarbonizationEnergy SecurityQUAD, India-Japan Collaboration
Type
Research Article
Information
Asia-Pacific Journal , Volume 20 , Issue 18 , October 2022 , e5
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2022

References

Notes

1 Stockwell, C.; Geiges, A.; Ramalope, D.; Matthew, G.; Hare, B.; de Villafranca Casas, M.J; Moisio, M.; Hans, F.; Mooldijk, S.; Höhne, N.; Fekete, H. Glasgow's 2030 credibility gap: net zero's lip service to climate action. Baxter, C, Merrett, C, Spagopoulo, F, Beer M, Eds. Warming Projections Global Update 2021, November, pp1-28. Available online: https://climateactiontracker.org/documents/997/CAT_2021-11-09_Briefing_Global-Update_Glasgow2030CredibilityGap.pdf (03 April 2022).

2 DeWit, A. Decarbonization and Critical Raw Materials: Some Issues for Japan. The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus 2021, Volume 19, pp1-13. Available online: https://apjjf.org/-Andrew-DeWit/5532/article.pdf (accessed 17 February 2022).

3 The Government of Japan. Japan's Green Growth Strategy Will Accelerate Innovation. Available online: https://www.japan.go.jp/kizuna/2021/09/green_growth_strategy.html#:~:text=It%20also%20puts%20emphasis%20on,20%20million%20tons%20in%202050 (accessed 28 January 2021).

4 Ministry of Trade Economy and Industry. Overview of Japan's Green Growth Strategy Through Achieving Carbon Neutrality in 2050 (Provisional translation); METI: Tokyo, Japan 2021; pp 1-11. Available online: https://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2020/pdf/1225_001a.pdf (accessed 27 January 2021).

5 Agency for Natural Resources and Energy. Outline of Strategic Energy Plan; METI: Tokyo, 2021; pp 1-13. Available online: https://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/en/category/others/basic_plan/pdf/6th_outline.pdf (accessed 29 January 2021).

6 IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 2021, pp 1-246. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (accessed 02 January 2022).

7 IEA. Minerals used in clean energy technologies compared to other power generation sources. 2021. Available online: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/minerals-used-in-clean-energy-technologies-compared-to-other-power-generation-sources (accessed 22 May 2022).

8 IEA. Minerals used in clean energy technologies compared to other power generation sources. 2021. Available online: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/minerals-used-in-clean-energy-technologies-compared-to-other-power-generation-sources (accessed 22 May 2022).

9 IEA. Minerals used in electric cars compared to conventional cars. 2021. Available online: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/minerals-used-in-electric-cars-compared-to-conventional-cars/

10 The World Bank. Climate-Smart Mining: Minerals for Climate Action. Available online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/extractiveindustries/brief/climate-smart-mining-minerals-for-climate-action (accessed 29 March 2022)

11 Ahmad, K.; Campbell R. Taking ESG Seriously: The crucial role of mining investors in the energy transition. Mining & Metals 2021: Forces of Transition and influencers of change 2021. Available Online: https://www.whitecase.com/publications/insight/mining-metals-2022-esg-and-energy-transition-sectors-biggest-opportunity# (accessed 29 January 2021).

12 Jenkins, L. The minerals we need to save the planet are getting way too expensive. Protocol. 2022

13 IEA. Critical minerals threaten a decades-long trend of cost declines for clean energy technologies; IEA: Paris, France, 2022. Available Online: https://www.iea.org/commentaries/critical-minerals-threaten-a-decades-long-trend-of-cost-declines-for-clean-energy-technologies {accessed 22 May 2022).

14 Kanisetti, A. Opinion: Here's how India can end Chinese dominance in rare earths. Business Insider, Available Online: https://www.businessinsider.in/policy/economy/news/heres-how-india-can-end-chinese-domina nce-in-rare-earths/articleshow/80883001.cms (accessed 12 March 2022).

15 Gupta, V; Biswas, T; Ganesan, K. Critical Non-Fuel Mineral Resources for India's Manufacturing Sector: A Vision for 2030. CEEW Report; Department of Science & Technology: Government of India, Council on Energy Environment and Water: New Delhi, India, 2020. Available online: https://www.ceew.in/publications/critical-non-fuel-mineral-resources-indias-manufacturing-sector#:~:text=The%20critical%20minerals%20including%20beryllium,%2C%20nuclear%20energy%2C%20and%20smartphones (accessed 30 January 2021).

16 IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 2021, pp 1-246. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (accessed 02 January 2022).

17 IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 2021, pp 1-246. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (accessed 02 January 2022).

18 Gupta, V; Biswas, T; Ganesan, K. Critical Non-Fuel Mineral Resources for India's Manufacturing Sector: A Vision for 2030. CEEW Report; Department of Science & Technology: Government of India, Council on Energy Environment and Water: New Delhi, India, 2020. Available online: https://www.ceew.in/publications/critical-non-fuel-mineral-resources-indias-manufacturing-sector#:~:text=The%20critical%20minerals%20including%20beryllium,%2C%20nuclear%20energy%2C%20and%20smartphones (accessed 30 January 2021).

19 IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 2021, pp 1-246. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (accessed 02 January 2022).

20 DeWit, A. Decarbonization and Critical Raw Materials: Some Issues for Japan. The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus 2021, Volume 19, pp1-13. Available online: https://apjjf.org/-Andrew-DeWit/5532/article.pdf (accessed 17 February 2022).

21 IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 2021, pp 1-246. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (accessed 02 January 2022).

22 IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 2021, pp 1-246. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (accessed 02 January 2022).

23 DeWit, A. The IEA's Critical Minerals Report and its Implications for Japan. Rikkyo Economic Review 2022, Volume 75, pp.1-32. Available online: https://economics.rikkyo.ac.jp/research/paper/pudcar00000002ed-att/p001-032_75-1.pdf (accessed on 16 March 2022).

24 IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 2021, pp 1-246. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (accessed 02 January 2022).

25 IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 2021, pp 1-246. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (accessed 02 January 2022).

26 IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 2021, pp 1-246. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (accessed 02 January 2022).

27 IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 2021, pp 1-246. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (accessed 02 January 2022).

28 IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 2021, pp 1-246. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf (accessed 02 January 2022).

29 DeWit, A. Decarbonization and Critical Raw Materials: Some Issues for Japan. The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus 2021, Volume 19, pp1-13. Available online: https://apjjf.org/-Andrew-DeWit/5532/article.pdf (accessed 17 February 2022).

30 Campbell, R.; Tivey, J. Mining & Metals 2021: ESG momentum reaching a crescendo in a resilient market. White & Case LLP. 2021. Available online: https://www.whitecase.com/insight-our-thinking/mining-metals-2021-esg-momentum-reaching-crescendo-resilient-market (accessed 29 January 2021).

31 Campbell, R., Tivey, J. and Wright, O., Mining & metals 2022: ESG and energy transition – the sector's biggest opportunity. White & Case LLP. 2022. Available online: https://www.whitecase.com/publications/insight/mining-metals-2022-esg-and-energy-transition-sectors-biggest-opportunity# (accessed 7 February 2022).

32 de Brier, G.; Arian, H.; Hoex, L. IPIS Briefing May 2021 - Reducing the carbon footprint at the expense of a mineral footprint?. 2021. Available online: https://ipisresearch.be/weekly-briefing/ipis-briefing-may-2021-reducing-the-carbon-footprint-at-the-expense-of-a-mineral-footprint/#IN_FOCUS_REDUCING_THE_CARBON_FOOTPRINT_AT_THE_EXPENSE_OF_A_MINERAL_FOOTPRINT (accessed May 24, 2022).

33 Kuykendall, T. Path to Net-zero: Drive to Lower Emissions Pays in Metals, Mining Sector. 2021. Available online: https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/path-to-net-zero-drive-to-lower-emissions-pays-in-metals-mining-sector-67951431 (Accessed 04 January 2022).

34 Kuykendall, T. Path to Net-zero: Drive to Lower Emissions Pays in Metals, Mining Sector. 2021. Available online: https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/path-to-net-zero-drive-to-lower-emissions-pays-in-metals-mining-sector-67951431 (Accessed 04 January 2022).

35 Campbell, R., Tivey, J. and Wright, O., Mining & metals 2022: ESG and energy transition – the sector's biggest opportunity. White & Case LLP. 2022. Available online: https://www.whitecase.com/publications/insight/mining-metals-2022-esg-and-energy-transition-sectors-biggest-opportunity# (accessed 7 February 2022).

36 Campbell, R., Tivey, J. and Wright, O., Mining & metals 2022: ESG and energy transition – the sector's biggest opportunity. White & Case LLP. 2022. Available online: https://www.whitecase.com/publications/insight/mining-metals-2022-esg-and-energy-transition-sectors-biggest-opportunity# (accessed 7 February 2022).

37 DeWit, A. The IEA's Critical Minerals Report and its Implications for Japan. Rikkyo Economic Review 2022, Volume 75, pp.1-32. Available online: https://economics.rikkyo.ac.jp/research/paper/pudcar00000002ed-att/p001-032_75-1.pdf (accessed on 16 March 2022).

38 Delevingne, L.; Glazener, W.; and Grégoir, L. Climate risk and decarbonization: What every mining CEO needs to know. McKinsey & Company. 2020. Available online: https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/climate-risk-and-decarbonization-what-every-mining-ceo-needs-to-know (accessed on 10 February 2022).

39 Kuykendall, T. Path to Net-zero: Drive to Lower Emissions Pays in Metals, Mining Sector. 2021. Available online: https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/path-to-net-zero-drive-to-lower-emissions-pays-in-metals-mining-sector-67951431 (Accessed 04 January 2022).

40 Delevingne, L.; Glazener, W.; and Grégoir, L. Climate risk and decarbonization: What every mining CEO needs to know. McKinsey & Company. 2020. Available online: https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/climate-risk-and-decarbonization-what-every-mining-ceo-needs-to-know (accessed on 10 February 2022).

41 Delevingne, L.; Glazener, W.; and Grégoir, L. Climate risk and decarbonization: What every mining CEO needs to know. McKinsey & Company. 2020. Available online: https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/climate-risk-and-decarbonization-what-every-mining-ceo-needs-to-know (accessed on 10 February 2022).

42 Kuykendall, T. Path to Net-zero: Drive to Lower Emissions Pays in Metals, Mining Sector. 2021. Available online: https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/path-to-net-zero-drive-to-lower-emissions-pays-in-metals-mining-sector-67951431 (Accessed 04 January 2022).

43 El-Shahat, S.; Almulla, M. The Energy Transition Needs Metals. But it Needs Social Awareness Too. 2021. Available online: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/10/decarbonization-energy-transition-metals-esg/ (accessed 04 January 2022).

44 IEA. Critical minerals threaten a decades-long trend of cost declines for clean energy technologies; IEA: Paris, France, 2022. Available Online: https://www.iea.org/commentaries/critical-minerals-threaten-a-decades-long-trend-of-cost-declines-for-clean-energy-technologies {accessed 22 May2022).

45 Institute for European Studies. Metals for a Climate Neutral Europe A 2050 Blueprint; Eurometaux, 2019; pp 1-9. Available online: https://eurometaux.eu/media/1997/exec-summary-metals-2050.pdf (accessed 10 February 2022).

46 DeWit, A. Decarbonization and Critical Raw Materials: Some Issues for Japan. The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus 2021, Volume 19, pp1-13. Available online: https://apjjf.org/-Andrew-DeWit/5532/article.pdf (accessed 17 February 2022).

47 Institute for European Studies. Metals for a Climate Neutral Europe A 2050 Blueprint; Eurometaux, 2019; pp 1-9. Available online: https://eurometaux.eu/media/1997/exec-summary-metals-2050.pdf (accessed 10 February 2022).

48 Cox, B.; Innis, S.; Kunz, N.C. et al. The mining industry as a net beneficiary of a global tax on carbon emissions. Communications Earth & Environment 2022, Volume 3, 17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00346-4

49 Gadre, R.; Jain, A.; Jaiswal, S.; Gombar, V.; Traum, D. India's Clean Power Revolution. BloombergNEF, 2020; pp.1-68. Available online: https://data.bloomberglp.com/professional/sites/24/2020-06-26-Indias-Clean-Power-Revolution_Final.pdf

50 Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. India Achieves 100GW Milestone of Installed Renewable Energy Capacity. 2021. Available online: https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1745254

51 Gupta, V; Biswas, T; Ganesan, K. Critical Non-Fuel Mineral Resources for India's Manufacturing Sector: A Vision for 2030. CEEW Report; Department of Science & Technology: Government of India, Council on Energy Environment and Water: New Delhi, India, 2020. Available online: https://www.ceew.in/publications/critical-non-fuel-mineral-resources-indias-manufacturing-sector#:~:text=The%20critical%20minerals%20including%20beryllium,%2C%20nuclear%20energy%2C%20and%20smartphones (accessed 30 January 2021).

52 Gupta, V; Biswas, T; Ganesan, K. Critical Non-Fuel Mineral Resources for India's Manufacturing Sector: A Vision for 2030. CEEW Report; Department of Science & Technology: Government of India, Council on Energy Environment and Water: New Delhi, India, 2020. Available online: https://www.ceew.in/publications/critical-non-fuel-mineral-resources-indias-manufacturing-sector#:~:text=The%20critical%20minerals%20including%20beryllium,%2C%20nuclear%20energy%2C%20and%20smartphones (accessed 30 January 2021).

53 Independent. 2021. Available online: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/indian-economy-hit-by-covid19-shrinks-by-73-in-202021-new-delhi-indian-arvind-kejriwal-covid-united-states-b1856987.html (accessed on 05 February 2022).

54 Chadha, R. Skewed critical minerals global supply chains post COVID-19: Reforms for making India self-reliant*. Brookings Institution India Center Discussion Note. Brookings India: New Delhi, India, 2020: Brookings India, pp.1-7. Available online: https://www.brookings.edu/research/skewed-critical-minerals-global-supply-chains-post-covid-19/ (Accessed on 29 December 2021).

55 Ernst & Young (EY). Managing the impact of COVID-19 on India's supply chains– Now, Next and Beyond; Ernst & Young (EY), 2020; pp 1-130. Available online: https://assets.ey.com/content/dam/ey-sites/ey-com/en_in/topics/government-and-public-sector/2020/09/managing-the-impact-of-covid-19-on-india-supply-chains.pdf (Accessed on 29 December 2021).

56 Ernst & Young (EY). Managing the impact of COVID-19 on India's supply chains– Now, Next and Beyond; Ernst & Young (EY), 2020; pp 1-130. Available online: https://assets.ey.com/content/dam/ey-sites/ey-com/en_in/topics/government-and-public-sector/2020/09/managing-the-impact-of-covid-19-on-india-supply-chains.pdf (Accessed on 29 December 2021).

57 Chadha, R; Sivamani, G. Critical Minerals for India: Assessing their Criticality and Projecting their Needs for Green Technologies. CSEP Working Paper Volume 19. Centre for Social and Economic Progress: New Delhi, India 2021: pp. 1-40 Available online: https://csep.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Critical-Minerals-for-Green-Technologies-1.pdf (accessed on 29 December 2021).

58 Chadha, R; Sivamani, G. Critical Minerals for India: Assessing their Criticality and Projecting their Needs for Green Technologies. CSEP Working Paper Volume 19. Centre for Social and Economic Progress: New Delhi, India 2021: pp. 1-40 Available online: https://csep.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Critical-Minerals-for-Green-Technologies-1.pdf (accessed on 29 December 2021).

59 Chadha, R; Sivamani, G. Critical Minerals for India: Assessing their Criticality and Projecting their Needs for Green Technologies. CSEP Working Paper Volume 19. Centre for Social and Economic Progress: New Delhi, India 2021: pp. 1-40 Available online: https://csep.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Critical-Minerals-for-Green-Technologies-1.pdf (accessed on 29 December 2021).

60 Chadha, R; Sivamani, G. Critical Minerals for India: Assessing their Criticality and Projecting their Needs for Green Technologies. CSEP Working Paper Volume 19. Centre for Social and Economic Progress: New Delhi, India 2021: pp. 1-40 Available online: https://csep.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Critical-Minerals-for-Green-Technologies-1.pdf (accessed on 29 December 2021).

61 Gupta, V; Biswas, T; Ganesan, K. Critical Non-Fuel Mineral Resources for India's Manufacturing Sector: A Vision for 2030. CEEW Report; Department of Science & Technology: Government of India, Council on Energy Environment and Water: New Delhi, India, 2020. Available online: https://www.ceew.in/publications/critical-non-fuel-mineral-resources-indias-manufacturing-sector#:~:text=The%20critical%20minerals%20including%20beryllium,%2C%20nuclear%20energy%2C%20and%20smartphones (accessed 30 January 2021).

62 Chadha, R; Sivamani, G. Critical Minerals for India: Assessing their Criticality and Projecting their Needs for Green Technologies. CSEP Working Paper Volume 19. Centre for Social and Economic Progress: New Delhi, India 2021: pp. 1-40 Available online: https://csep.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Critical-Minerals-for-Green-Technologies-1.pdf (accessed on 29 December 2021).

63 Chadha, R. Skewed critical minerals global supply chains post COVID-19: Reforms for making India self-reliant*. Brookings Institution India Center Discussion Note. Brookings India: New Delhi, India, 2020: Brookings India, pp.1-7. Available online: https://www.brookings.edu/research/skewed-critical-minerals-global-supply-chains-post-covid-19/ (Accessed on 29 December 2021).

64 Chadha, R. Skewed critical minerals global supply chains post COVID-19: Reforms for making India self-reliant*. Brookings Institution India Center Discussion Note. Brookings India: New Delhi, India, 2020: Brookings India, pp.1-7. Available online: https://www.brookings.edu/research/skewed-critical-minerals-global-supply-chains-post-covid-19/ (Accessed on 29 December 2021).

65 Chadha, R. Skewed critical minerals global supply chains post COVID-19: Reforms for making India self-reliant*. Brookings Institution India Center Discussion Note. Brookings India: New Delhi, India, 2020: Brookings India, pp.1-7. Available online: https://www.brookings.edu/research/skewed-critical-minerals-global-supply-chains-post-covid-19/ (Accessed on 29 December 2021).

66 Chadha, R; Sivamani, G. Critical Minerals for India: Assessing their Criticality and Projecting their Needs for Green Technologies. CSEP Working Paper Volume 19. Centre for Social and Economic Progress: New Delhi, India 2021: pp. 1-40 Available online: https://csep.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Critical-Minerals-for-Green-Technologies-1.pdf (accessed on 29 December 2021).

67 Gupta, V; Biswas, T; Ganesan, K. Critical Non-Fuel Mineral Resources for India's Manufacturing Sector: A Vision for 2030. CEEW Report; Department of Science & Technology: Government of India, Council on Energy Environment and Water: New Delhi, India, 2020. Available online: https://www.ceew.in/publications/critical-non-fuel-mineral-resources-indias-manufacturing-sector#:~:text=The%20critical%20minerals%20including%20beryllium,%2C%20nuclear%20energy%2C%20and%20smartphones (accessed 30 January 2021).

68 Gupta, V; Biswas, T; Ganesan, K. Critical Non-Fuel Mineral Resources for India's Manufacturing Sector: A Vision for 2030. CEEW Report; Department of Science & Technology: Government of India, Council on Energy Environment and Water: New Delhi, India, 2020. Available online: https://www.ceew.in/publications/critical-non-fuel-mineral-resources-indias-manufacturing-sector#:~:text=The%20critical%20minerals%20including%20beryllium,%2C%20nuclear%20energy%2C%20and%20smartphones (accessed 30 January 2021).

69 Gupta, V; Biswas, T; Ganesan, K. Critical Non-Fuel Mineral Resources for India's Manufacturing Sector: A Vision for 2030. CEEW Report; Department of Science & Technology: Government of India, Council on Energy Environment and Water: New Delhi, India, 2020. Available online: https://www.ceew.in/publications/critical-non-fuel-mineral-resources-indias-manufacturing-sector#:~:text=The%20critical%20minerals%20including%20beryllium,%2C%20nuclear%20energy%2C%20and%20smartphones (accessed 30 January 2021).

70 Chadha, R; Sivamani, G. Critical Minerals for India: Assessing their Criticality and Projecting their Needs for Green Technologies. CSEP Working Paper Volume 19. Centre for Social and Economic Progress: New Delhi, India 2021: pp. 1-40 Available online: https://csep.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Critical-Minerals-for-Green-Technologies-1.pdf (accessed on 29 December 2021).

71 Chatterjee, B; Chadha, R. Non-Fuel Minerals and Mining: Enhancing Mineral Exploration in India. Discussion Note. Brrokings Institution India Center: New Delhi, India, 2020, pp. 1-7. Available online: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Enhancing-Mineral-Exploration-in-India.pdf (Accessed 16 March 2022).

72 Chadha, R. Skewed critical minerals global supply chains post COVID-19: Reforms for making India self-reliant*. Brookings Institution India Center Discussion Note. Brookings India: New Delhi, India, 2020: Brookings India, pp.1-7. Available online: https://www.brookings.edu/research/skewed-critical-minerals-global-supply-chains-post-covid-19/ (Accessed on 29 December 2021).

73 Day.W; U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. The Earth Mapping Resources Initiative (Earth MRI): Mapping the Nation's Critical Mineral Resources; U.S. Geological Survey, 2019; pp 1-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20193007

74 The White House. FACT SHEET: Securing a Made in America Supply Chain for Critical Minerals; 2022. Available online: https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/02/22/fact-sheet-securing-a-made-in-america-supply-chain-for-critical-minerals/

75 Office of Public Affairs, U.S. Department of Commerce. Department of Commerce Releases Report on Critical Minerals; U.S. Department of Commerce: Washington D.C, 2019. Available online: https://2017-2021.commerce.gov/news/press-releases/2019/06/department-commerce-releases-report-critical-minerals.html

76 Day.W; U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. Technical Overview of the U.S. Geological Survey Earth Mapping Resources Initiative (Earth MRI); Factsheet 2020-2035, 2020; pp 1-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20203055

77 Day.W; U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. The Earth Mapping Resources Initiative (Earth MRI): Mapping the Nation's Critical Mineral Resources; U.S. Geological Survey, 2019; pp 1-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20193007

78 United States Geological Survey; Geoscience Australia; Geological Survey of Canada. International Geoscience Collaboration to Support Critical Mineral Discovery. Factsheet 2020-2035, 2020; pp 1-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20203035

79 USGS. 2021. Available online: https://www.usgs.gov/centers/gggsc/science/critical-minerals-mapping-initiative-cmmi (accessed on 13 March 2022).

80 Polland, J. Asia Financial. 2021. Available online: https://www.asiafinancial.com/quad-nations-to-cooperate-on-rare-earths-chips-and-key-tech-supply-chains

81 Hindustan Times. QUAD Economy & Technology task force: A time for concerted action. 2022. Available online: https://www.hindustantimes.com/ht-insight/international-affairs/quad-economy-technology-task-force-a-time-for-concerted-action-101645695059862.html (accessed 29 February 2022).

82 Gateway House: Indian Council on Global Relations. QUAD ECONOMY & TECHNOLOGY TASK FORCE: A TIME FOR CONCERTED ACTION. Gateway House Report, 2021; August, pp.1-53. Available online: https://images.hindustantimes.com/images/app-images/2022/2/Quad-Economy-and-Technolog y-Task-Force-Report_GH_2021.pdf (Accessed 1 March 2022).

83 Dominguez, G. 2022. Japan Times. February 8. Available online: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2022/02/08/world/china-rare-earth-dependence/

84 Nikkei Asia. Quad tightens rare-earth cooperation to counter China. 2021. Available online: https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Indo-Pacific/Quad-tightens-rare-earth-cooperation-to-counter-China (accessed 5 March 2022).

85 Chansoria, M. Mining and R&D of Rare Earth Elements: Prospects, Challenges, and Avenues for Indo-Japan Partnership. Policy Brief. pp.1-11, 2020. Available online: https://www.jiia-jic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Chansoria_20200629.pdf (accessed 22 March 2022).

86 Matsumoto, F. Nikkei Asia. US and Australia team up against China's dominance in rare earths. 2021. Available online: https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Markets/Commodities/US-and-Australia-team-up-against-China-s-dominance-in-rare-earths (accessed 5 March 2022).

87 Chansoria, M. Mining and R&D of Rare Earth Elements: Prospects, Challenges, and Avenues for Indo-Japan Partnership. Policy Brief. pp.1-11, 2020. Available online: https://www.jiia-jic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Chansoria_20200629.pdf (accessed 22 March 2022).

88 Chansoria, M. Mining and R&D of Rare Earth Elements: Prospects, Challenges, and Avenues for Indo-Japan Partnership. Policy Brief. pp.1-11, 2020. Available online: https://www.jiia-jic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Chansoria_20200629.pdf (accessed 22 March 2022).

89 Nikkei Asia. Quad tightens rare-earth cooperation to counter China. 2021. Available online: https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Indo-Pacific/Quad-tightens-rare-earth-cooperation-to-counter-China (accessed 5 March 2022).

90 Boyd, J. U.S. and Japan Seeking to Break China's Grip on Rare Earths Production- Japan is mining deep sea mud and the U.S. is developing biotech to extract REEs in an environmentally responsible way. IEEE Spectrum. 2020. Available online: https://spectrum.ieee.org/us-and-japan-seeking-to-break-chinas-grip-on-rare-earths (Accessed 20 March 2022).

91 Ryosuke, H. Japan to pour investment into non-China rare-earth projects. Nikkei Asia. 2020. Available online: https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Japan-to-pour-investment-into-non-China-rare-earth-projects (Accessed on 3 March 2022).

92 Ryosuke, H. Japan to pour investment into non-China rare-earth projects. Nikkei Asia. 2020. Available online: https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Japan-to-pour-investment-into-non-China-rare-earth-projects (Accessed on 3 March 2022).

93 Jingyi, C.; Tulei. China released draft regulation on rare earths, including quota control, investment management. Global Times. 2021. Available online: https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202101/1212941.shtml?id=11 (Accessed 14 March 2022).

94 Wilson, J. The Prospects for Quad-South Korea Cooperation on Critical Minerals. GMFUS. 2022. Available online: https://www.gmfus.org/news/prospects-quad-south-korea-cooperation-critical-minerals (Accessed on 14 March 2022).

95 Polland, J. Asia Financial. 2021. Available online: https://www.asiafinancial.com/quad-nations-to-cooperate-on-rare-earths-chips-and-key-tech-supply-chains

96 Kanisetti, A.; Pareek, A; Ramachandran, N. A Rare Earths Strategy for India, 1st ed; Takshashila Institution: Bengaluru, India, 2020; pp.2-29. Available online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/62336292e028f644a12dad03/1647534787499/A-Rare-Earths-Strategy-for-India_TDD_AK_AP_NR_v1.0.pdf (Accessed on 17 March 2022).

97 Kanisetti, A.; Pareek, A; Ramachandran, N. A Rare Earths Strategy for India, 1st ed; Takshashila Institution: Bengaluru, India, 2020; pp.2-29. Available online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/62336292e028f644a12dad03/1647534787499/A-Rare-Earths-Strategy-for-India_TDD_AK_AP_NR_v1.0.pdf (Accessed on 17 March 2022).

98 Nikkei Asia. Quad tightens rare-earth cooperation to counter China. 2021. Available online: https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Indo-Pacific/Quad-tightens-rare-earth-cooperation-to-counter-China (accessed 5 March 2022).

99 Kanisetti, A.; Pareek, A; Ramachandran, N. A Rare Earths Strategy for India, 1st ed; Takshashila Institution: Bengaluru, India, 2020; pp.2-29. Available online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/62336292e028f644a12dad03/1647534787499/A-Rare-Earths-Strategy-for-India_TDD_AK_AP_NR_v1.0.pdf (Accessed on 17 March 2022).

100 Kanisetti, A. Opinion: Here's how India can end Chinese dominance in rare earths. Business Insider, Available Online: https://www.businessinsider.in/policy/economy/news/heres-how-india-can-end-chinese-dominance-in-rare-earths/articleshow/80883001.cms (accessed 12 March 2022).

101 Kanisetti, A.; Pareek, A; Ramachandran, N. A Rare Earths Strategy for India, 1st ed; Takshashila Institution: Bengaluru, India, 2020; pp.2-29. Available online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/62336292e028f644a12dad03/1647534787499/A-Rare-Earths-Strategy-for-India_TDD_AK_AP_NR_v1.0.pdf (Accessed on 17 March 2022).

102 Kanisetti, A.; Pareek, A; Ramachandran, N. A Rare Earths Strategy for India, 1st ed; Takshashila Institution: Bengaluru, India, 2020; pp.2-29. Available online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/62336292e028f644a12dad03/1647534787499/A-Rare-Earths-Strategy-for-India_TDD_AK_AP_NR_v1.0.pdf (Accessed on 17 March 2022).

103 Ladwa, M. Quad cooperation on rare earths could decide winner of technological race. India Global Business. 2021. Available online: https://www.indiaglobalbusiness.com/globallyspeaking/quad-cooperation-on-rare-earths-could-decide-winner-of-technological-race (Accessed on 15 March 2022).

104 Ladwa, M. Quad cooperation on rare earths could decide winner of technological race. India Global Business. 2021. Available online: https://www.indiaglobalbusiness.com/globallyspeaking/quad-cooperation-on-rare-earths-could-decide-winner-of-technological-race (Accessed on 15 March 2022).

105 Dominguez, G. The Complex road to ending dependence on Chinese rare earths. The Japan Times; 2022. Available online: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2022/02/08/world/china-rare-earth-dependence/ (Accessed 2 March 2022).

106 Dominguez, G. The Complex road to ending dependence on Chinese rare earths. The Japan Times; 2022. Available online: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2022/02/08/world/china-rare-earth-dependence/ (Accessed 2 March 2022).

107 Nikkei Asia. Quad tightens rare-earth cooperation to counter China. 2021. Available online: https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Indo-Pacific/Quad-tightens-rare-earth-cooperation-to-counter-China (accessed 5 March 2022).

108 U.S. Department of Defense. Release IMMEDIATE RELEASE DOD Announces Rare Earth Element Award to Strengthen Domestic Industrial Base; 2021. Available online: https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/2488672/dod-announces-rare-earth-element-award-to-strengthen-domestic-industrial-base/

109 Dominguez, G. The Complex road to ending dependence on Chinese rare earths. The Japan Times; 2022. Available online: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2022/02/08/world/china-rare-earth-dependence/ (Accessed 2 March 2022).

110 Dominguez, G. The Complex road to ending dependence on Chinese rare earths. The Japan Times; 2022. Available online: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2022/02/08/world/china-rare-earth-dependence/ (Accessed 2 March 2022).

111 Kanisetti, A.; Pareek, A; Ramachandran, N. A Rare Earths Strategy for India, 1st ed; Takshashila Institution: Bengaluru, India, 2020; pp.2-29. Available online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/62336292e028f644a12dad03/1647534787499/A-Rare-Earths-Strategy-for-India_TDD_AK_AP_NR_v1.0.pdf (Accessed on 17 March 2022).

112 Kanisetti, A.; Pareek, A; Ramachandran, N. A Rare Earths Strategy for India, 1st ed; Takshashila Institution: Bengaluru, India, 2020; pp.2-29. Available online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/62336292e028f644a12dad03/1647534787499/A-Rare-Earths-Strategy-for-India_TDD_AK_AP_NR_v1.0.pdf (Accessed on 17 March 2022).

113 Kanisetti, A.; Pareek, A; Ramachandran, N. A Rare Earths Strategy for India, 1st ed; Takshashila Institution: Bengaluru, India, 2020; pp.2-29. Available online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/62336292e028f644a12dad03/1647534787499/A-Rare-Earths-Strategy-for-India_TDD_AK_AP_NR_v1.0.pdf (Accessed on 17 March 2022).

114 Burton, M.; Gibbs, E. Australia, U.S. and Canada launch interactive map for critical minerals. Reuters; 2021. Available online: https://www.reuters.com/technology/australia-us-canada-launch-interactive-map-critical-minerals-2021-06-29/ (Accessed on 17 March 2022).

115 Wilson, J. The Prospects for Quad-South Korea Cooperation on Critical Minerals. GMFUS. 2022. Available online: https://www.gmfus.org/news/prospects-quad-south-korea-cooperation-critical-minerals (Accessed on 14 March 2022).

116 Mavrodieva, A.; Shaw, R. Disaster and Climate Change Issues in Japan's Society 5.0—A Discussion. Sustainability; 2020. 12(5), pp.1-17. Available online: https://doi.org/10.3390/su12051893 (Accessed on 16 March 2022).

117 Chatterjee, B; Chadha, R. Non-Fuel Minerals and Mining: Enhancing Mineral Exploration in India. Discussion Note. Brrokings Institution India Center: New Delhi, India, 2020, pp. 1-7. Available online: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Enhancing-Mineral-Exploration-in-India.pdf (Accessed 16 March 2022).

118 Chatterjee, B; Chadha, R. Non-Fuel Minerals and Mining: Enhancing Mineral Exploration in India. Discussion Note. Brrokings Institution India Center: New Delhi, India, 2020, pp. 1-7. Available online: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Enhancing-Mineral-Exploration-in-India.pdf (Accessed 16 March 2022).

119 Chatterjee, B; Chadha, R. Non-Fuel Minerals and Mining: Enhancing Mineral Exploration in India. Discussion Note. Brrokings Institution India Center: New Delhi, India, 2020, pp. 1-7. Available online: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Enhancing-Mineral-Exploration-in-India.pdf (Accessed 16 March 2022).

120 Nakano, J. The Geopolitics of Critical Minerals Supply Chains. CSIS. March 2021. pp.1-26. Available online: https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/210311_Nakano_Critical_Minerals.pdf?DR03x5jIrwLnNjmPDD3SZjEkGEZFEcgt (Accessed on 22 March 2022).

121 Nakano, J. The Geopolitics of Critical Minerals Supply Chains. CSIS. March 2021. pp.1-26. Available online: https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/210311_Nakano_Critical_Minerals.pdf?DR03x5jIrwLnNjmPDD3SZjEkGEZFEcgt (Accessed on 22 March 2022).

122 Nakano, J. The Geopolitics of Critical Minerals Supply Chains. CSIS. March 2021. pp.1-26. Available online: https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/210311_Nakano_Critical_Minerals.pdf?DR03x5jIrwLnNjmPDD3SZjEkGEZFEcgt (Accessed on 22 March 2022).

123 DeWit, A. The IEA's Critical Minerals Report and its Implications for Japan. Rikkyo Economic Review 2022, Volume 75, pp.1-32. Available online: https://economics.rikkyo.ac.jp/research/paper/pudcar00000002ed-att/p001-032_75-1.pdf (accessed on 16 March 2022).

124 Chansoria, M. Mining and R&D of Rare Earth Elements: Prospects, Challenges, and Avenues for Indo-Japan Partnership. Policy Brief. pp.1-11, 2020. Available online: https://www.jiia-jic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Chansoria_20200629.pdf (accessed 22 March 2022).

125 Nakano, J. The Geopolitics of Critical Minerals Supply Chains. CSIS. March 2021. pp.1-26. Available online: https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/210311_Nakano_Critical_Minerals.pdf?DR03x5jIrwLnNjmPDD3SZjEkGEZFEcgt (Accessed on 22 March 2022).

126 Chansoria, M. Mining and R&D of Rare Earth Elements: Prospects, Challenges, and Avenues for Indo-Japan Partnership. Policy Brief. pp.1-11, 2020. Available online: https://www.jiia-jic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Chansoria_20200629.pdf (accessed 22 March 2022).

127 DeWit, A. The IEA's Critical Minerals Report and its Implications for Japan. Rikkyo Economic Review 2022, Volume 75, pp.1-32. Available online: https://economics.rikkyo.ac.jp/research/paper/pudcar00000002ed-att/p001-032_75-1.pdf (accessed on 16 March 2022).

128 JAMSTEC. 2021. Developing Innovative Technologies for Exploration of Deep Sea Resources | Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion Program. Available online: https://www.jamstec.go.jp/sip2/e/ (Accessed 22 March 2022).

129 Takaya, Y.; Yasukawa, K.; Kawasaki, T.; Fujinaga, K., Ohta, J.; Usui, Y.; Nakamura, K.; Kimura, J.; Chang, Q., Hamada, M.; et al. The tremendous potential of deep-sea mud as a source of rare-earth elements. Sci Rep 8, 5738. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-23948-5; and Nature. Japan pioneers extracting rare-earth elements from the deep sea. Focal Point on Deep-Sea Resources; 2021. pp.1-2. Available online: https://www.nature.com/articles/d42473-020-00524-y (Accessed on 22 March 2022).

130 Boyd, J. U.S. and Japan Seeking to Break China's Grip on Rare Earths Production- Japan is mining deep sea mud and the U.S. is developing biotech to extract REEs in an environmentally responsible way. IEEE Spectrum. 2020. Available online: https://spectrum.ieee.org/us-and-japan-seeking-to-break-chinas-grip-on-rare-earths (Accessed 20 March 2022).

131 Invest India. Available online: https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/electronic-systems (Accessed on 24 March 2022).

132 Invest India. Available online: https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/electronic-systems (Accessed on 24 March 2022).

133 Invest India. Available online: https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/electronic-systems (Accessed on 24 March 2022).

134 Chansoria, M. Mining and R&D of Rare Earth Elements: Prospects, Challenges, and Avenues for Indo-Japan Partnership. Policy Brief. pp.1-11, 2020. Available online: https://www.jiia-jic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Chansoria_20200629.pdf (accessed 22 March 2022).

135 Invest India. Available online: https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/electronic-systems (Accessed on 24 March 2022).

136 Chansoria, M. Mining and R&D of Rare Earth Elements: Prospects, Challenges, and Avenues for Indo-Japan Partnership. Policy Brief. pp.1-11, 2020. Available online: https://www.jiia-jic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Chansoria_20200629.pdf (accessed 22 March 2022).

137 Chansoria, M. Mining and R&D of Rare Earth Elements: Prospects, Challenges, and Avenues for Indo-Japan Partnership. Policy Brief. pp.1-11, 2020. Available online: https://www.jiia-jic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Chansoria_20200629.pdf (accessed 22 March 2022).

138 Chatterjee, B; Chadha, R. Non-Fuel Minerals and Mining: Enhancing Mineral Exploration in India. Discussion Note. Brrokings Institution India Center: New Delhi, India, 2020, pp. 1-7. Available online: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Enhancing-Mineral-Exploration-in-In dia.pdf (Accessed 16 March 2022).

139 Chansoria, M. Mining and R&D of Rare Earth Elements: Prospects, Challenges, and Avenues for Indo-Japan Partnership. Policy Brief. pp.1-11, 2020. Available online: https://www.jiia-jic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Chansoria_20200629.pdf (accessed 22 March 2022).

140 Chansoria, M. Mining and R&D of Rare Earth Elements: Prospects, Challenges, and Avenues for Indo-Japan Partnership. Policy Brief. pp.1-11, 2020. Available online: https://www.jiia-jic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Chansoria_20200629.pdf (accessed 22 March 2022).

141 DeWit, A. The IEA's Critical Minerals Report and its Implications for Japan. Rikkyo Economic Review 2022, Volume 75, pp.1-32. Available online: https://economics.rikkyo.ac.jp/research/paper/pudcar00000002ed-att/p001-032_75-1.pdf (accessed on 16 March 2022).

142 Kanisetti, A.; Pareek, A; Ramachandran, N. A Rare Earths Strategy for India, 1st ed; Takshashila Institution: Bengaluru, India, 2020; pp.2-29. Available online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/62336292e028f644a12dad03/1647534787499/A-Rare-Earths-Strategy-for-India_TDD_AK_AP_NR_v1.0.pdf (Accessed on 17 March 2022).

143 Dutta, S. Urban Mining: India's Billion Dollar E-waste market. Renewable Matter; 2019. Available online: https://renewablematter.eu/articles/article/urban-mining-indias-billion-dollar-e-waste-market) (Accessed on 23 March 2022).

144 Humber, Y. 2022. “Japan's Challenges for Carbon Neutrality: challenges on CRM recycling and deep sea mining”. Interview by Saki Isetani [zoom], June 30.

145 Humber, Y. 2022. “Japan's Challenges for Carbon Neutrality: challenges on CRM recycling and deep sea mining”. Interview by Saki Isetani [zoom], June 30.

146 Kanisetti, A.; Pareek, A; Ramachandran, N. A Rare Earths Strategy for India, 1st ed; Takshashila Institution: Bengaluru, India, 2020; pp.2-29. Available online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/62336292e028f644a12dad03/1647534787499/A-Rare-Earths-Strategy-for-India_TDD_AK_AP_NR_v1.0.pdf (Accessed on 17 March 2022).

147 Ladwa, M. Quad cooperation on rare earths could decide winner of technological race. India Global Business. 2021. Available online: https://www.indiaglobalbusiness.com/globallyspeaking/quad-cooperation-on-rare-earths-could-decide-winner-of-technological-race (Accessed on 15 March 2022).

148 DeWit, A. The IEA's Critical Minerals Report and its Implications for Japan. Rikkyo Economic Review 2022, Volume 75, pp.1-32. Available online: https://economics.rikkyo.ac.jp/research/paper/pudcar00000002ed-att/p001-032_75-1.pdf (accessed on 16 March 2022).

149 P.V.Unnikrishnan, 2022. “Interview on deep sea mining challenges for Japan and India”. Interview by Saki Isetani [Google Meets], July 12.

150 P.V.Unnikrishnan, 2022. “Interview on deep sea mining challenges for Japan and India”. Interview by Saki Isetani [Google Meets], July 12.

151 Dominguez, G. The Complex road to ending dependence on Chinese rare earths. The Japan Times; 2022. Available online: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2022/02/08/world/china-rare-earth-dependence/ (Accessed 2 March 2022).

152 Bhattacharya, D. A rare earths roadmap for India: Seeking atma nirbharta in Indian technology. Firstpost; 2022. Available online: https://www.firstpost.com/india/a-rare-earths-roadmap-for-india-seeking-atma-nirbharta-in-indian-technology-10270901.html (Accessed on 23 March 2022).

153 Chatterjee, B; Chadha, R. Non-Fuel Minerals and Mining: Enhancing Mineral Exploration in India. Discussion Note. Brrokings Institution India Center: New Delhi, India, 2020, pp. 1-7. Available online: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Enhancing-Mineral-Exploration-in-India.pdf (Accessed 16 March 2022).

154 Bhattacharya, D. A rare earths roadmap for India: Seeking atma nirbharta in Indian technology. Firstpost; 2022. Available online: https://www.firstpost.com/india/a-rare-earths-roadmap-for-india-seeking-atma-nirbharta-in-indian-technology-10270901.html (Accessed on 23 March 2022).