¹ The field research for this article was made possible by the “Research Travel within the US” Japan Studies grant from the Northeast Asia Council, the Association for Asian Studies, and the Faculty Excellence Grant from Montana State University. Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the University of Michigan, George Washington University/Washington Coalition for Comfort Women Issues, Inc, University of California at Santa Barbara, University of Auckland, Boston University, and the University of British Columbia. I would like to thank all the people who asked questions and gave me comments on the presentation versions of the paper. I would also like to thank Bethany Grenald, for editorial help.

² For more information on the exhibit, its cancellation and its reopening, see David McNeill, “Freedom Fighting: Nagoya's Censored Art Exhibition and the ‘Comfort Women’ Controversy.” https://apjjf.org/2019/20/McNeill.html

³ Ibid.

⁴ Agency of Cultural Affairs, Government of Japan. “Aichi Toriennāre ni Kansuru hojokin no toriatsukai ni tsuite.” (On the handling of aid money to the Aichi Triennale.) September 26, 2019. https://www.bunka.go.jp/koho_hodo_oshirase/hodohappyo/1421672.html, Accessed January 19, 2020.

⁵ Matsukawa Rui, Twitter, August 3, 2019. https://twitter.com/matsukawa_rui/status/1157636225785683969, Accessed January 22, 2020.

⁶ Nogawa Motokazu, a scholar who specializes in historical revisionism in Japan, points out that the term, “rekishi sensō”, started to appear in right-wing opinion magazine, Seiron, in February 2013, and Seiron often published special issues on the “history wars” from that year. Nogawa Motokazu, “‘Rekishisen’ no Tanjō to Tenkai”, Umi o Wataru Ianfu Mondai: Uha no Rekishisen o Tou (The “Comfort Women” Issue Goes Overseas: Questioning the “History Wars” of the Right-Wing), Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1-39.

⁷ On the right: The Sankei Shimbun, Rekishisen: Asahi Shimbun ga Sekai ni Maita “Ianfu” no Uso o Utsu. (History Wars: Defeating the Lie of “Comfort Women” that Asahi Shimbun Spread in the World.) The Sankei Shimbun, 2014, and on the left, The Sankei Shimbun, translation directed by Komori Yoshihisa, History Wars: Japan – False Indictment of the Century. Tokyo: The Sankei Shimbun, 2017.

⁸ For more background of Nippon Kaigi, see Tawara Yoshifumi, What is the Aim of Nippon Kaigi, the Ultra-Right Organization that Supports Japan's Abe Administration? The Asia-Pacific Journal, Japan Focus, November 1, 2017, Volume 15 | Issue 21 | Number 1. https://apjjf.org/2017/21/Tawara.html Accessed January 23, 2020.

⁹ Sakamoto Takao. 1998. ‘Kenpō Kaisei Rongi to Rekishi Kaishaku.‘ (The Discussion on the Revision of the Constitution and the Interpretation of History.) Nihon no Ibuki. January: 4-5

¹⁰ Abe played a leadership role in the revisionist history textbook movement, as the secretary-general of the Young Diet Members' Group for Japan's Future and History Education. The group published a book entitled Rekishi Kyōkasho eno Gimon (Doubts about History Textbooks) in December 1997, summarizing their activities led by Nakagawa Shoichi and Abe Shinzo since February 1997. Nihon no Zento to Rekishi Kyōiku o Kangaeru Wakate Giin no Kai, Rekishi Kyōkasho eno Gimon, Tokyo: Tentensha, 1997.

¹¹ For discussion on the right-wing claims and criticisms against them, see Nishino Rumiko, Kim Puja and Onozawa Akane, eds. Denying the Comfort Women: The Japanese State's Assault on Historical Truth. Routledge 2018.

¹² This line of criticism to label someone as “fabricator” is typically seen in the right-wing attacks against Uemura Takashi, a former reporter of the Asahi and the current president of Shūkan Kinyōbi. Uemura Takashi, “Labeled the reporter who ‘fabricated’ the comfort woman issue: A rebuttal.” The Asia-Pacific Journal, Japan Focus, Volume 13, Issue 2, Number 1, January 12, 2015. https://apjjf.org/2015/13/1/Tomomi-Yamaguchi/4249.html

¹³ On the ACM's involvement in the “comfort woman” issue, see Tomomi Yamaguchi, “Revisionism, Ultranationalism, Sexism: Relations Between the Far Right and the Establishment Over the ‘Comfort Women’ Issue”. Social Science Japan Journal. Vol. 21, Issue 2, 2018: 219-238.

¹⁴ Yoshida Seiji (1913-2000) was a WWII veteran and a writer who claimed that he forcibly took women away to serve as “comfort women.” Asahi announced in 2015 that three other articles were based on Yoshida's testimony and retracted them as well. As a result of intense criticism against the Asahi, the company had a third-party panel examine its coverage of the “comfort woman” issue, and in December 2014, the panel stated that “the lack of an apology when the Asahi retracted those past articles in August was a mistaken judgment by the Asahi management. The Asahi Shimbun, ”Third-party panel criticizes delay in retracting ‘comfort women’ articles over Yoshida testimony.“ December 23, 2014. http://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/AJ201412230056.html. Accessed February 2, 2020.

¹⁵ For example, the LDP's Special Mission Committee for the Restoration of the Honor and Credibility of Japan submitted a proposal to Prime Minister Abe on July 28, 2015. The proposal includes the statement blaming the Asahi for damaging Japan's honor as a result of its reports of Yoshida Seiji's claim. See the Prime Minister of Japan and its Cabinet, “Proposal from the LDP Special Mission Committee for the Restoration of the Honor and Credibility of Japan.” July 28, 2015, https://japan.kantei.go.jp/97_abe/actions/201507/28article2.html. Also see the Asahi Shimbun, “Ianfu Mondai Meguri Jimin-i ga Teigen, ‘Jijitsu ni Motozuku Hanron o.” (The LDP Committee Submitted a Proposal, ‘We should offer counterarguments based on facts.’) July 28, 2015, https://digital.asahi.com/articles/ASH7X4V8KH7XUTFK00L.html?iref=pc_ss_date

¹⁶ The term, “shusenjō” (main battleground), started to appear in conservative media in Japan from around 2013, as seen in scholar Shimada Yōichi's article in Seiron magazine, “Amerika ni okeru Nicchū Jōhōsen no Saizensen (The Forefront of the Information War Between Japan and China in the U.S.), Seiron, May 5, 2013: 26-83). The term became more widely used from 2014, especially in relation to the ”comfort woman“ issue in the U.S., and appeared as a title of Part 6 of Sankei's serial, ”History Wars,“ as ”Shusenjō, Beikoku“ (Main Battleground, the United States) that ran from August 30 to September 3, 2014. On the concept of ”main battleground,“ see Emi Koyama, ”The U.S. as the Main ‘Battleground’ for ‘Comfort Woman’ Revisionism: The Screening of Scottsboro Girls at Central Washington University.“ The Asia-Pacific Journal, Japan Focus, June 3, 2015, Volume 13 | Issue 22 | Number 2. https://apjjf.org/Emi-Koyama/4324.html A documentary film directed by Miki Dezaki, Shusenjō: the Main Battleground of Comfort Women Issue, released in 2018, uses the term shusenjō in its title, but its meaning in the film mainly concerns the debate, constructed by director Dezaki in the film, on the ”comfort woman“ issue, and differs significantly from its original meaning referring mainly to the United States, and occasionally Canada, Australia and the United Nations.

¹⁷ On the Korean American movement to build the monument in Palisades Park, see Alexis Dudden, “Korean Americans enter the Historical Memory Wars on behalf of the Comfort Women.” The Asia-Pacific Journal, Japan Focus, Volume 10 | Issue 54 | Number 122, December 31, 2012. https://apjjf.org/-Alexis-Dudden/4731/article.html

¹⁸ Okamoto Akiko, “Beikoku no Hōjin Shitei ga Ijime Higai, Kankoku no Ianfu Hannichi Senden ga Man'en suru Kōzu.” (Japanese children in the U.S. are victims of bullying: the system of permeation of the anti-Japan PR by South Korea.) Seiron, May 2012: 126-133.

¹⁹ Tamura Shigenobu, “Bei Nyū Jājī shū Pariseizu Pāku shi no Ianfu Kinenhi Mondai.” (The Problem of the Comfort Woman Memorial in the City of Palisades Park, New Jersey, US.) Blogos, May 28, 2012. https://blogos.com/article/39937/ Furuya Keiji, “Ianfu Hi Mondai, Howaito Hausu eno Shomei no Onegai.” (The Issue of Comfort Woman Monument, Please sign the petition to the White House.) May 22, 2012. http://www.furuya-keiji.jp/blog/archives/1798.html. Accessed February 14, 2020.

²⁰ Kirk Semple, “In New Jersey, Memorial for ‘Comfort Women’ Deepens Old Animosity.” The New York Times, May 18, 2012. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/19/nyregion/monument-in-palisades-park-nj-irritates-japanese-officials.html

²¹ Rompa Project was established in August 2013 by Fujii Mitsuhiko to exhibit manga on the “comfort woman” issue from a revisionist perspective to the Angoulême International Comics Festival in France held in January 2014. The booth by the Rompa Project was removed by the festival organizer. Rompa Project has been actively involved in the “history wars,” as a member organization of Ianfu no Shinjitsu Kokumin Undō (The People's Campaign for the Truth about Comfort Women).

²² Robert M. Wada, “Vox Populi: Korean War Vet Sounds Off on Proposed Comfort Women Monument.” The Rafu Shimpo, August 7, 2013. https://www.rafu.com/2013/08/vox-populi-korean-war-vet-sounds-off-on-proposed-comfort-women-monument/ Accessed February 14, 2020.

²³ “Michigan Latest to Install Comfort Woman Statue.” The Korea Times, August 18 2014. http://www.koreatimesus.com/michigan-gets-a-comfort-woman-statue-also/. Accessed February 14, 2020.

²⁴ KAFC changed its name to “Comfort Women Action for Redress & Education” (CARE) in 2019. CARE's website is https://comfortwomenaction.org

²⁵ The largest Asian population in Glendale is Filipino. The 2020 census data shows that the City of Glendale, population 191,719, has 13,289 people who identify as Filipino, 10,315 as Korean, 2,439 as Chinese, and 1,222 as Japanese. https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_SF1DP1&prodType=table. The census does not ask about Armenian ancestry, and it is hard to determine the number of Armenians in the city. Yet it is said that Armenians are the demographic majority, with about 40% of the population. Daniel Fittante, “But Why Glendale? A History of Armenian Immigration to Southern California.” California History, Vol. 94, No.3, Fall 2017: 2-19.

²⁶ At the unveiling ceremony of the Glendale statue, Rafu Shimpo reports that councilman Zareh Sinanyan spoke as a grandson of an Armenian genocide survivor, “My people, my grandfather, were subjected to a horrible, horrible crime … To this day, because no apology has come, no proper acknowledgement has come … the wound is deep, it's festering, and there can be no moving forward without it.” J.K. Yamamoto and Mikey Hirano Culross, “Comfort Women Monument Unveiled in Glendale.” Rafu Shimpo, August 2, 2013. http://www.rafu.com/2013/08/comfort-women-monument-unveiled-in-glendale/ Accessed February 14, 2020.

²⁷ Emi Koyama, “Amerika ‘Ianfuhi eno Kōgeki” (Attacks against ‘comfort woman’ statues in the US) in Yamaguchi et al. Umi o Wataru Ianfu Mondai: 44-45.

²⁸ For example, a board member of NCRR, Kathy Masaoka, writes in her letter to the Los Angeles Times that the apology by the US helped the victims heal. She then continues, “when Japan apologizes and pays reparations to ‘comfort women,’ it will give some healing to those women who are still alive and provide a lesson to the world that abuse of women will not be tolerated.” Kathy Masaoka, “Readers React: Japan should apologize to ‘comfort women.’ Los Angeles Times, December 14, 2015. https://www.latimes.com/opinion/readersreact/la-le-1216-tuesday-japan-comfort-women-20141216-story.html

²⁹ Katsuya Hirano also points out that shin-issei “have been organizing meetings and study groups to promote a revisionist history in the greater L.A. area.” Katsuya Hirano, “A Reflection on Uemura Takashi's Talk at UCLA.” The Asia-Pacific Journal, Japan Focus, August 17, 2015, Volume 13, Issue 33, Number 4. https://apjjf.org/2015/13/33/Katsuya-Hirano/4363.html

³⁰ The plaintiffs were Michiko Shirota Gingery (1924-2015) and Koichi Mera (1933-2019), along with GAHT-US. Gingery passed away in March 2015.

³¹ Koichi Mera, the chairman of Nihon Saisei Kenyūkai (the Study Group of Japan's Rebirth), and the founder and president of Global Alliance of Historical Truth (GAHT), http://gahtjp.org/ was one of the leading figures of the movement to oppose “comfort woman” statues by the Japanese and shin-issei based in Southern California. After moving to Princeton, NJ, he opened a website discussing controversial history-related issues, such as “comfort women,” Nanking Massacre and Tokyo Trials, from a right-wing perspective, calling his site “Princeton Institute for Asian Studies.” The site was later renamed as “Pacific Institute for Asian Studies.” https://pacificifas.org/ He passed away in December 2019.

³² The Japanese American Bar Association (JABA) also supported the City of Glendale when GAHT brought a lawsuit against the city to remove the statue. See the joint statement by the Korean American Bar Association of Southern California (KABA) and JABA's joint statement in support of the city. http://www.jabaonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/KABA_JABA_Joint_Statement_4-23-14.pdf

³³ The right-wing manga that depict the Glendale statue and the bullying incidents of the Japanese in the U.S. include Yamano Sharin's Manga Daikenkanryū (Manga Big Hate Korean Wave), Tokyo: Shinyūsha, 2015, and Tomita Akiko's Hinomaru Gaisen Otome (The Girls Trying to Bring About National Pride), Vol2. Tokyo: Seirindō, 2016. Volume 2 of Tomita's Hinomaru Gaisen Otome, the volume that covers the Glendale case, has an English version, while volumes 1 and 3 do not.

³⁴ In 2015, three right-wing organizations filed collective lawsuits against the Asahi Shimbun. Besides the Asahi-Glendale Lawsuit supported by Nippon Kaigi, Asahi Shimbun o Tadasu Kokumin Kaigi (The National Conference to Correct the Asahi Shimbun) led by Mizushima Satoru, the president of the right-wing television and online production company, Channel Sakura, and its activist organization, Ganbare Nippon, filed a collective suit against the Asahi at Tokyo District Court, with 25,000 plaintiffs, in January 26, 2015. Each plaintiff asked 10,000 yen for the defamation of their character as Japanese, resulting from the Asahi's report. Another organization that sued the Asahi was by a group called Asahi o Tadasu Kai (Group to Correct the Asahi) filed suit in February 9, 2015, with about 480 plaintiffs. The group also filed a suit at Kofu District Court in Yamanashi Prefecture with about 150 plaintiffs in August 2016. Both lawsuits argued that the plaintiffs' right to knowledge was denied. The Asahi Shimbun won all the cases. For more information on the court battles, see Kitano Ryuichi. “Neraware Tsuzukeru 'Ianfu Hōdō.” Tsukada Hotaka ed., Tettei Kenshō, Nihon no Ukeika. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobō, 2017: 276-287.

³⁵ In addition to the lack of concrete evidence that they could provide to the court, there are disagreements over the existence of bullying in local communities among the initial plaintiffs of the Asahi Glendale Lawsuit. Regardless, the legal team emphasized bullying as the major damage to Japanese living in the U.S.

³⁶ In the greater New York area, free papers such as New York Biz and NY Seikatsu cover events, and have space for opinion advertisements for the Japanese right-wing based in the US and Japan, such as Himawari Japan, New York Rekishi Mondai Kenkyūkai and Nadeshiko Action. In the LA area, Nikkan Sun runs a serial by a Japanese columnist who sometimes covers the Glendale statue controversy from a right-wing perspective.

³⁷ The Rafu Shimpo, “‘Comfort Women’ Memorial Unveiled in San Francisco.” October 6, 2017. http://www.rafu.com/2017/10/comfort-women-memorial-unveiled-in-san-francisco/. Accessed January 26, 2020.

³⁸ Emi Koyama. “Amerika ‘Ianfu’ Hi Secchi eno Kōgeki.” (The attacks against the building of ‘comfort women’ monuments in the U.S.) In Tomomi Yamaguchi, Nogawa Motokazu, Tessa Morris-Suzuki, Emi Koyama. Umi o Wataru “Ianfu” Mondai: Uha no Rekishisen wo Tou (The “Comfort Women” Issue Goes Overseas: Questioning the Right-Wing “History Wars”), Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. 2016: 41-68.

³⁹ The Streisand effect is named after the incident in which Barbra Streisand attempted to suppress photographs of her residence from a database only to receive extensive attention and publicity.

⁴⁰ kubutukan no Jomakushiki, Nihon Seifu wa Hisshino Hatarakikake.“ (History wars, Comfort woman statue, is it going to be built in Washington DC after Manhattan? The unveiling ceremony at a Korean American museum, the Japanese government worked hard to persuade), Sankei Shimbun, October 14, 2017. https://www.sankei.com/world/news/171014/wor1710140054-n1.html. Accessed February 29, 2020.

⁴¹ The Executive Committee for Statue of Peace, “Unveiling Ceremony for Washington Statue of Peace” program distributed at the unveiling ceremony, October 27, 2019.

⁴² H. Res. 121 states that “the government of Japan should: (1) formally acknowledge, apologize, and accept historical responsibility for its Imperial Armed Force's coercion of young women into sexual slavery (comfort women) during its colonial and wartime occupation of Asia and the Pacific Islands from the 1930s through the duration of World War II; (2) have this official and public apology presented by the Prime Minister of Japan; (3) refute any claims that the sexual enslavement and trafficking of the comfort women never occurred; and (4) educate current and future generations about this crime while following the international community's recommendations with respect to the comfort women.” https://www.congress.gov/bill/110th-congress/house-resolution/121 The “agreement” on “comfort women” issue between the Republic of Korea and Japan in 2015 does not involve any official apology presented by the Prime Minister of Japan, nor does it include a statement on the part of the Japanese government to refute revisionist claims or to educate current and future generations on this issue. The Japanese government also has not followed the UN recommendations on the “comfort woman” issue. In other words, the 2015 “agreement” was far from what the H. Res. 121 demands Japan on this issue.