Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-xtvcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-15T07:52:48.269Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 13 - Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists

from Part V - Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 October 2022

Dima Abdulrahim  and
Owen Bowden-Jones
Dima Abdulrahim
Affiliation:
Programme Manager and Principal Researcher for the NEPTUNE Project, Central and North West London NHS Foundation Trust
Owen Bowden-Jones
Affiliation:
Consultant Addiction Psychiatrist, Central and North West London NHS Foundation Trust
Get access

Summary

Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs), also referred to as synthetic cannabinoids, or synthetic cannabimimetics, are a large group of smokeable drugs initially sold as legal alternatives to cannabis. They have a strong effect on the endocannabinoid system. More than 200 different SCRA compounds were available in Europe at the end of 2020.

Type
Chapter
Information
Textbook of Clinical Management of Club Drugs and Novel Psychoactive Substances
NEPTUNE Clinical Guidance
 , pp. 299 - 328
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2019. New York, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2019.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Synthetic Cannabinoids in Herbal Products. New York, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2011. Available at: www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/Synthetic_Cannabinoids.pdf [last accessed 24 March 2022].Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Perspectives on Drugs. Synthetic Cannabinoids in Europe. Update 6 June 2017. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2753/POD_Synthetic%20cannabinoids_0.pdf [last accessed 26 April 2022].Google Scholar
Winstock, AR, Barratt, MJ. Synthetic cannabis: a comparison of patterns of use and effect profile with natural cannabis in a large global sample. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013;131(1–3):106–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.12.011Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Synthetic Cannabinoids and ‘Spice’ Drug Profile. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/synthetic-cannabinoids [last accessed 24 March 2022].Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Perspectives on Drugs. Synthetic Cannabinoids in Europe. Update 6 June 2017. Available at: https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2753/POD_Synthetic%20cannabinoids_0.pdf [last accessed 26 April 2022].Google Scholar
Fattore, L, Fratta, W. Beyond THC: the new generation of cannabinoid designer drugs. Front Behav Neurosci 2011;5:60. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00060Google Scholar
Hudson, S, Ramsey, J. The emergence and analysis of synthetic cannabinoids. Drug Test Anal 2011;3:466–478.Google Scholar
Vardakou, I, Pistos, C, Spiliopoulou, C. Spice drugs as a new trend: mode of action, identification and legislation. Toxicol Lett 2010;197:157–162.Google Scholar
Loeffler, G, Hurst, D, Penn, A, Yung, K. Spice, bath salts, and the US military: the emergence of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and cathinones in the US Armed Forces. Mil Med 2012;177(9):1041–1048.Google Scholar
Bonaccorso S, Metastasio A, Ricciardi A, et al. Synthetic cannabinoid use in a case series of patients with psychosis presenting to acute psychiatric settings: clinical presentation and management issues. Brain Sci 2018;8:133. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8070133Google Scholar
Hudson, S, Ramsey, J, King, L, et al. Use of high-resolution accurate mass spectrometry to detect reported and previously unreported cannabinomimetics in ‘herbal high’ products. J Anal Toxicol 2010;34(5):252–260.Google Scholar
Huffman, JW, Padgett, LW. Recent developments in the medicinal chemistry of cannabinomimetic indoles, pyrroles and indenes. Curr Med Chem 2005;12:1395–1411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D’Souza, DC, Perry, E, MacDougall, L, et al. The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004;29(8):1558–1572.Google Scholar
Papanti, D, Orsolini, L, Francesconi, G, Schifano, F. ‘Noids’ in a nutshell: everything you (don’t) want to know about synthetic cannabimimetics. Adv Dual Diagn 2014;7(3):1–13.Google Scholar
Zuardi, AW, Crippa, JA, Hallak, JE, Moreira, FA, Guimarães, FS. Cannabidiol, a cannabis sativa constituent, as an antipsychotic drug. Braz J Med Biol Res 2006;39(4):421–429.Google Scholar
Morgan, CJ, Das, RK, Joye, A, Curran, HV, Kamboj, SK. Cannabidiol reduces cigarette consumption in tobacco smokers: preliminary findings. Addict Behav 2013;38(9):2433–2436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.03.011Google Scholar
Murray RM, , Quigley H, , Quattrone D, , Englund A, Di Forti M., Traditional marijuana, high potency cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids: increasing risk for psychosis. World Psychiatry 2016;15:195–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seely, KA, Prather, PL, James, LP, Moran, JH. Marijuana-based drugs: innovative therapeutics or designer drugs of abuse? Mol Interv 2011;11:36–51.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Synthetic Cannabinoids in Europe (updated 28 May 2013) (Perspectives on Drugs series). EMCDDA, 2013. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/topics/pods/synthetic-cannabinoids [last accessed 24 March 2022].Google Scholar
Huffman, JW, Dai, D, Martin, BR, Compton, DR. Design, synthesis and pharmacology of cannabimimetic indoles. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1994;4:563–566.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potts AJ, , Cano C, , Thomas SHL, , Hill SL., Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists: classification and nomenclature. Clin Toxicol 2020;58(2):82–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2019.1661425Google Scholar
Carroll, FI, Lewin, AH, Mascarella, SW, Seltzman, HH, Reddy, PA. Designer drugs: a medicinal chemistry perspective. Ann NY Acad Sci 2012;1248:18–38.Google Scholar
Uchiyama, N, Kawamura, M, Kikura-Hanajiri, R, Goda, Y. Identification and quantitative analyses of two cannabimimetic phenylacetylindoles, JWH-251 and JWH-250, and four cannabimimetic naphthoylindoles, JWH-081, JWH-015, JWH-200 and JWH-073, as designer drugs in illegal products. Forensic Toxicol 2011;29:25–37.Google Scholar
Huffman, J. Cannabimimetic indoles, pyrroles, and indenes: structure–activity relationships and receptor interactions. In: Reggio, PH, (ed.), The Cannabinoid Receptors, pp. 49–94. New York, Humana Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Huffman, JW, Mabon, R, Wu, MJ, et al. 3-indolyl1-naphthylmethanes: new cannabimimetic indoles provide evidence for aromatic stacking interactions with the CB(1) cannabinoid receptor. Bioorg Med Chem 2003;11:539–549.Google Scholar
Auwärter, V, Dresen, S, Weinmann, W, Müller, M, Pütz, M, Ferreirós, N. ‘Spice’ and other herbal blends: harmless incense or cannabinoid designer drugs? J Mass Spectrom 2009;44(5):832–837. https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.1558Google Scholar
Weissman, A, Milne, GM, Melvin, LS Jr. Cannabimimetic activity from CP-47,497, a derivative of 3-phenylcyclohexanol. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1982;223:516–523.Google Scholar
Devane, WA, Breuer, A, Sheskin, T, Järbe, TU, Eisen, MS, Mechoulam, R. A novel probe for the cannabinoid receptor. J Med Chem 1992;35(11):2065–2069.Google Scholar
Gottardo, R, Chiarini, A, Dal Prà, I, et al. Direct screening of herbal blends for new synthetic cannabinoids by MALDI-TOF MS. J Mass Spectrom 2012;47(1):141–146. https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.2036Google Scholar
Hutter, M, Broecker, S, Kneisel, S, Auwärter, V. Identification of the major urinary metabolites in man of seven synthetic cannabinoids of the aminoalkylindole type present as adulterants in ‘herbal mixtures’ using LC-MS/MS techniques. J Mass Spectrom 2012;47(1):54–65. https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.2026Google Scholar
Marusich, JA, Wiley, JL, Lefever, TW, Patel, PR, Thomas, BF. Finding order in chemical chaos – continuing characterization of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. Neuropharmacology 2018;134(Pt A):73–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.041Google Scholar
Lindigkeit, R, Boehme, A, Eiserloh, I, et al. Spice: a never-ending story? Forensic Sci Int 2009;191:58–63.Google Scholar
Hermanns-Clausen, M, Kneisel, S, Szabo, B, Auwärter, V. Acute toxicity due to the confirmed consumption of synthetic cannabinoids: clinical and laboratory findings. Addiction 2013;108(3):534–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04078.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uchiyama, N, Matsuda S, , Kawamura M, , Kikura-Hanajiri, R, Goda Y., Two new-type cannabimimetic quinolinyl carboxylates, QUPIC and QUCHIC, two new cannabimimetic carboxamide derivatives, ADB-FUBINACA and ADBICA, and five synthetic cannabinoids detected with a thiophene derivative a-PVT and an opioid receptor agonist AH-7921 identified in illegal products. Forensic Toxicol 2013;31:223–240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11419-013–0182-9Google Scholar
Adams AJ, , Banister SD, , Irizarry L, , Trecki J, , Schwartz M, , Gerona R, . ‘Zombie’ outbreak caused by the synthetic cannabinoid AMB-FUBINACA in New York. N Engl J Med 2017;376:235–242. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1610300Google Scholar
McCain, KR, Jones, JO, Chilbert, KT, Patton, AL, James, LP, Moran, JH. Impaired driving associated with the synthetic cannabinoid 5fAdb. J Forensic Sci Criminol 2018;6(1). https://doi.org/10.15744/2348-9804.6.105Google Scholar
Haden M, , Archer JRH, , Dargan PI, , Wood DM., MDMB-CHMICA: availability, patterns of use, and toxicity associated with this novel psychoactive substance. Subst Use Misuse 2017;52(2):223–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2016.1223692Google Scholar
Bilgrei, OR. From ‘herbal highs’ to the ‘heroin of cannabis’: Exploring the evolving discourse on synthetic cannabinoid use in a Norwegian Internet drug forum. Int J Drug Policy 2016;29:1–8.Google Scholar
Lamy, FR, Daniulaityte, R, Nahhas, RW, et al. Increases in synthetic cannabinoid-related harms: results from a longitudinal web-based content analysis. Int J Drug Policy 2017;44:121–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.05.007Google Scholar
Bäckberg, M, Tworek, L, Beck, O, et al. Analytically confirmed intoxications involving MDMB-CHMICA from the STRIDA Project. J Med Toxicol 2017;13:52–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0584-2Google Scholar
Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD). Further Consideration of the Synthetic Cannabinoids. ACMD, October 2012. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/929909/FOR_PUBLICATION_-_ACMD_SCRA_report_final.pdf [last accessed 26 April 2022].Google Scholar
Bäckberg, M, Tworek, L, Beck, O, et al. Analytically confirmed intoxications involving MDMB-CHMICA from the STRIDA Project. J Med Toxicol 2017;13:52–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0584-2Google Scholar
See for example www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/09/22/letters-sent-prison-photocopied-amid-fears-soaked-drugs/ [last accessed 24 March 2022].Google Scholar
Ford, LT, Berg, JD. Analytical evidence to show letters impregnated with novel psychoactive substances are a means of getting drugs to inmates within the UK prison service. Ann Clin Biochem 2018;55(6);673–678. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004563218767462Google Scholar
Moosmann, B, Angerer, V, Auwärter, V. Inhomogeneities in herbal mixtures: a serious risk for consumers. Forensic Toxicol 2014;33:54–60.Google Scholar
Choi, H, Heo, S, Choe, S, et al. Simultaneous analysis of synthetic cannabinoids in the materials seized during drug trafficking using GC-MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013;405:3937–3944.Google Scholar
Frinculescu, A, Lyall, CL, Ramsey, J, Miserez, B. Variation in commercial smoking mixtures containing third generation synthetic cannabinoids. Drug Test Anal 2017;9:327–333.Google Scholar
Choi, H, Heo, S, Choe, S, et al. Simultaneous analysis of synthetic cannabinoids in the materials seized during drug trafficking using GC-MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013;405(12):3937–3944. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-012-6560-zGoogle Scholar
Ginsburg, BC, McMahon, LR, Sanchez, JJ, Javors, MA. Purity of synthetic cannabinoids sold online for recreational use. J Anal Toxicol 2012;36(1):66–68. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bkr018Google Scholar
Brandt, SD, Sumnall, HR, Measham, F, Cole, J. Analyses of second-generation ‘legal highs’ in the UK: initial findings. Drug Test Anal 2010;2:377–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brandt, SD, Sumnall, HR, Measham, F, Cole, J. Second generation mephedrone: the confusing case of NRG-1. Br Med J 2010;341:c3564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, S, Wood, DM, Smith, G, et al. Purchasing ‘legal highs’ on the Internet – is there consistency in what you get? QJM 2010;103:489–493.Google Scholar
Ramsey, J, Dargan, PI, Smyllie, M, et al. Buying ‘legal’ recreational drugs does not mean that you are not breaking the law. QJM 2010;103:777–783.Google Scholar
Hillebrand, J, Olszewski, D, Sedefov, R. Legal highs on the Internet. Subst Use Misuse 2010;45:330–340.Google Scholar
Pintori, N, Loi, B, Mereu, M. Synthetic cannabinoids: the hidden side of spice drugs. Behav Pharmacol 2017;28:409–419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization (WHO). JWH-018. Critical Review Report Agenda Item 4.5. Expert Committee on Drug Dependence 36th Meeting, Geneva, 16–20 June 2014.Google Scholar
Abouchedid, R, Hudson, S, Thurtle, N, et al. Analytical confirmation of synthetic cannabinoids in a cohort of 179 presentations with acute recreational drug toxicity to an emergency department in London, UK in the first half of 2015. Clin Toxicol 2017;55:338–345.Google Scholar
Kikura-Hanajiri, R, Uchiyama, N, Kawamura, M, et al. Changes in the prevalence of synthetic cannabinoids and cathinone derivatives in Japan until early 2012. Forensic Toxicol 2013;31:44–53.Google Scholar
Cordeiro, SK, Daro, RC, Seung, H, Klein-Schwartz, W, Kim, HK. Evolution of clinical characteristics and outcomes of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist exposure in the United States: analysis of National Poison Data System data from 2010 to 2015. Addiction 2018;113:1850–1861.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogata, J, Uchiyama, N, Kikura-Hanajiri, R, Goda, Y. DNA sequence analyses of blended herbal products including synthetic cannabinoids as designer drugs. Forensic Sci Int 2013;227(1–3):33–41.Google Scholar
Uchiyama, N, Matsuda, S, Kawamura, M, Kikura-Hanajiri, R, Goda, Y. Two new-type cannabimimetic quinolinyl carboxylates, QUPIC and QUCHIC, two new cannabimimetic carboxamide derivatives, ADB-FUBINACA and ADBICA, and five synthetic cannabinoids detected with a thiophene derivative a-PVT and an opioid receptor agonist AH-7921 identified in illegal products. Forensic Toxicol 2013;31:223–240.Google Scholar
Lonati, D, Buscaglia, E, Papa, P, et al. MAM-2201 (analytically confirmed) intoxication after ‘Synthacaine’ consumption. Ann Emerg Med 2014;64(6):629–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2014.01.007Google Scholar
Uchiyama, N, Kawamura, M, Kikura-Hanajiri, R, Goda, Y. URB-754: a new class of designer drug and 12 synthetic cannabinoids detected in illegal products. Forensic Sci Int 2013;227(1–3):21–32.Google Scholar
Wurita, A, Hasegawa, K, Minakata, K, Watanabe, K, Suzuki, O. A large amount of new designer drug diphenidine coexisting with a synthetic cannabinoid 5-fluoro-AB-PINACA found in a dubious herbal product. Forensic Toxicol 2014;32(2):331–337.Google Scholar
Park, Y, Lee, C, Lee, H, et al. Identification of a new synthetic cannabinoid in a herbal mixture: 1-butyl-3-(2-ethoxybenzoyl) indole. Forensic Toxicol 2013;31:187–196.Google Scholar
Uchiyama, N, Shimokawa, Y, Matsuda, S, Kawamura, M, Kikura-Hanajiri, R, Goda, Y. Two new synthetic cannabinoids, AM-2201 benzimidazole analog (FUBIMINA) and (4-methylpiperazin1-yl)(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)methanone (MEPIRAPIM), and three phenethylamine derivatives, 25H-NBOMe 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl analog, 25B-NBOMe, and 2C-N-NBOMe, identified in illegal products. Forensic Toxicol 2014;32(1):105–115.Google Scholar
Uchiyama, N, Kikura-Hanajiri, R, Ogata, J, Goda, Y. Chemical analysis of synthetic cannabinoids as designer drugs in herbal products. Forensic Sci Int 2010;198:31–38.Google Scholar
Zuba, D, Byrska, B, Maciow, M. Comparison of ‘herbal highs’ composition. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011;400:119–126.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Synthetic Cannabinoids and ‘Spice’ Drug Profile. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/synthetic-cannabinoids [last accessed 24 March 2022].Google Scholar
Dresen, S, Ferreirós, N, Pütz, M, Westphal, F, Zimmermann, R, Auwärter, V. Monitoring of herbal mixtures potentially containing synthetic cannabinoids as psychoactive compounds. J Mass Spectrom 2010;45(10):1186–1194. https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.1811Google Scholar
Simmons, J, Cookman, L, Kang, C, Skinner, C. Three cases of ‘spice’ exposure. Clin Toxicol 2011;49:431–433.Google Scholar
Simmons, JR, Skinner, CG, Williams, J, Kang, CS, Schwartz, MD, Wills, BK. Intoxication from smoking ‘Spice’. Ann Emerg Med 2011;57:187–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seely, KA, Lapoint, J, Moran, JH, Fattore, L. Spice drugs are more than harmless herbal blends: a review of the pharmacology and toxicology of synthetic cannabinoids. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012;39(2):234–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.04.017Google Scholar
Castellanos, D, Thornton, G. Synthetic cannabinoid use: recognition and management. J Psychiatr Pract 2012;18(2):86–93. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.pra.0000413274.09305.9cGoogle Scholar
Dargan, PI, Hudson, S, Ramsey, J, Wood, DM. The impact of changes in UK classification of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists in ‘Spice’. Int J Drug Policy 2011;22(4):274–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/jdrugpo.2011.02.006.Google Scholar
Adams, AJ, Banister, SD, Irizarry, L, Trecki, J, Schwartz, M, Gerona, R. ‘Zombie’ outbreak caused by the synthetic cannabinoid AMB-FUBINACA in New York. N Engl J Med 2017;376:235–242.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. New Psychoactive Substances in Europe: An Update from the EU Early Warning System. 2015. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2753/POD_Synthetic%20cannabinoids_0.pdf [last accessed 26 April 2022].Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2016. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/LSS/Home/BothAreas [last accessed 26 April 2022].Google Scholar
Van Amsterdam, J, Nutt, D, van den Brink, W. Generic legislation of new psychoactive drugs. J Psychopharmacol 2013;27(3):317–324.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Perspectives on Drugs. Synthetic Cannabinoids in Europe. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2753/POD_Synthetic%20cannabinoids_0.pdf [last accessed 26 March 2022].Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar
HM Inspectorate of Prisons. HM Chief Inspector of Prisons for England and Wales: Annual Report 2013–2014.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2018.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Perspective on Drugs: Synthetic Cannabinoids in Europe. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2017.Google Scholar
Akram, H, Mokrysz, C, Curran, HV. What are the psychological effects of using synthetic cannabinoids? A systematic review. J Psychopharmacol 2019;33(3):271–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881119826592Google Scholar
Smith, KE, Staton, M. Synthetic cannabinoid use among a sample of individuals enrolled in community-based recovery programs: are synthetic cannabinoids actually preferred to other drugs? Subst Abuse 2018;40(2):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2018.1528495Google Scholar
Mathews, EM, Jeffries, E, Hsieh, C, Jones, G, Buckner, JD. Synthetic cannabinoid use among college students. Addict Behav 2019;93:219–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.02.009Google Scholar
Vandrey, R, Dunn, KE, Fry, JA, Girling, ER. A survey study to characterize use of Spice products (synthetic cannabinoids). Drug Alcohol Depend 2012;120(1–3):238–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.07.011Google Scholar
Barratt, MJ, Cakic, V, Lenton, S. Patterns of synthetic cannabinoid use in Australia. Drug Alcohol Rev 2013;32(2):141–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2012.00519.xGoogle Scholar
Castellanos, D, Singh, S, Thornton, G, Avila, M, Moreno, A. Synthetic cannabinoid use: a case series of adolescents. J Adolesc Health 2011;49(4):347–349.Google Scholar
Hurst, D, Loeffler, G, McLay, R. Synthetic cannabinoid agonist induced psychosis: a case series. APA poster. San Diego, Naval Medical Centre, 2011. Abstract in Am J Psychiatry 2011;168(10):1119. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11010176).Google Scholar
Van Der Veer, N, Friday, J. Persistent psychosis following the use of Spice. Schizophrenia Res 2011;130:285–286.Google Scholar
Peglow, S, Buchner, J, Briscoe, G. Synthetic cannabinoid-induced psychosis in a previously nonpsychotic patient. Am J Addict 2012;21:287–288.Google Scholar
Tung, CK, Chiang, TP, Lam, M. Acute mental disturbance caused by synthetic cannabinoid: a potential emerging substance of abuse in Hong Kong. East Asian Arch Psychiatry 2012;22(1):31–33.Google Scholar
Chan, WL, Wood, DM, Hudson, S, Dargan, PI. Acute psychosis associated with recreational use of benzofuran 6-(2 aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB) and cannabis. J Med Toxicol 2013;9(3):278–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-013-0306-yGoogle Scholar
Thornton, SL, Lo, J, Clark, RF, Wu, AH, Gerona, RR. Simultaneous detection of multiple designer drugs in serum, urine, and CSF in a patient with prolonged psychosis. Clin Toxicol 2012;50(10):1165–1168. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2012.744996Google Scholar
Abouchedid, R, Ho, JH, Hudson, S, et al. Acute toxicity associated with use of 5F-derivations of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists with analytical confirmation. J Med Toxicol 2016;12(4):396–401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0571-7Google Scholar
Abouchedid, R, Ho, JH, Hudson, S, et al. Acute toxicity associated with use of 5F-derivations of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists with analytical confirmation. J Med Toxicol 2016;12(4):396–401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0571-7Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Understanding the Spice Phenomenon. EMCDDA, 2009.Google Scholar
Brents, LK, Prather, PL. The K2/Spice phenomenon: emergence, identification, legislation and metabolic characterization of synthetic cannabinoids in herbal incense products. Drug Metab Rev 2014;46(1):72–85. https://doi.org/10.3109/03602532.2013.839700Google Scholar
Johnson, LA, Johnson, RL, Portier, RB. Current ‘legal highs’. J Emerg Med 2013;44(6):1108–1115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2012.09.147Google Scholar
Van Hout, MC, Hearne, E. User experiences of development of dependence on the synthetic cannabinoids, 5f-AKB48 and 5F-PB-22, and subsequent withdrawal syndromes. Int J Ment Health Addict 2017;15(3):565–579.Google Scholar
Schifano, F, Corazza, O, Deluca, P, et al. Psychoactive drug or mystical incense? Overview of the online available information on spice products. Int J Cult Ment Health 2009;2:137–144.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Acute kidney injury associated with synthetic cannabinoid use: multiple states. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2013;62(6):93–98.Google Scholar
Bebarta, VS, Ramirez, S, Varney, SM. Spice: a new ‘legal’ herbal mixture abused by young active-duty military personnel. Subst Abuse 2012;33:191–194.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar
Ellsworth, JT. Spice, vulnerability, and victimization: synthetic cannabinoids and interpersonal crime victimization among homeless adults [published online ahead of print, 7 November 2019]. Subst Abus 2019;2019:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2019.1686725Google Scholar
Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD). Benzofurans: A Review of the Evidence of Use and Harm. ACMD, November 2013.Google Scholar
Ralphs, R, Williams, L, Askew, R, Norton, A. Adding Spice to the Porridge: the development of a synthetic cannabinoid market in an English prison. Int J Drug Policy 2017;40:57–69.Google Scholar
Walker, DF. The informal economy in prison. Crim Justice Matters 2015;99(1):18–19.Google Scholar
User Voice: Spice: The Bird Killer. What Prisoners Think about the Use of Spice and Other Legal Highs in Prison. Published May 2016. Available at: www.uservoice.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/User-Voice-Spice-The-Bird-Killer-Report-compressed.pdf [last accessed 26 April 2022].Google Scholar
Forrester, M, Kleinschmidt, K, Schwarz, E, Young, A. Synthetic cannabinoid and marijuana exposures reported to poison centers. Hum Exp Toxicol 2012;31:1006–1011.Google Scholar
Schifano, F, Deluca, P, Baldacchino, A, et al. Drugs on the web; the Psychonaut 2002 EU project. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2006;30:640–646.Google Scholar
Teske, J, Weller, JP, Fieguth, A, Rothämel, T, Schulz, Y, Tröger, HD. Sensitive and rapid quantification of the cannabinoid receptor agonist naphthalen-1-yl-(1-pentylindol-3-yl) methanone (JWH-018) in human serum by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010;878:2659–2663.Google Scholar
Mathews, EM, Jeffries, E, Hsieh, C, Jones, G, Buckner, JD. Synthetic cannabinoid use among college students. Addict Behav 2019;93:219–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/jaddbeh.2019.02.009.Google Scholar
Smith, KElin, Staton, M. Synthetic cannabinoid use among a sample of individuals enrolled in community-based recovery programs: are synthetic cannabinoids actually preferred to other drugs? Subst Abuse 2018;2018:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2018.1528495Google Scholar
Shanks, KG, Dahn, T, Terrell, AR. Detection of JWH-018 and JWH-073 by UPLC–MS-MS in postmortem whole blood casework. J Analytical Toxicol 2012;36:145–152.Google Scholar
Saito, T, Namera, A, Miura, N, et al. A fatal case of MAM-2201 poisoning. Forensic Toxicol 2013;31:333–337.Google Scholar
Kronstrand, R, Roman, M, Andersson, M, Eklund, A. Toxicological findings of synthetic cannabinoids in recreational users. J Analytical Toxicol 2013;37(8):534–541.Google Scholar
Schaefer, N, Peters, B, Bregel, D, et al. A fatal case involving several synthetic cannabinoids. Toxichem Krimtech 2013;80(special issue):248.Google Scholar
Behonick, G, Shanks, KG, Firchau, DJ, et al. Four postmortem case reports with quantitative detection of the synthetic cannabinoid, 5F-PB-22. J Anal Toxicol 2014;38(8):559–562. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bku048Google Scholar
Savasman, CM, Peterson, DC, Pietak, BR, Dudley, MH, Clinton Frazee, III C, Garg, U. Two fatalities due to the use of synthetic cannabinoids alone. In: Proceedings of the 66th Annual Scientific Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Seattle, WA 17–22 February, 2014, p. 316. Denver, CO, Publication Printers, 2014.Google Scholar
Corkery, J, Claridge, H, Loi, B, Goodair, C, Schifano, F. NPSAD Annual Report 2013 – Drug-Related Deaths in the UK: January–December 2012. National Programme on Substance Abuse Deaths (NPSAD), 2014.Google Scholar
Elliott, S, Evans, J. A 3-year review of new psychoactive substances in casework. Forensic Sci Int 2014;243:55–60.Google Scholar
Wikstrom, M, Thelander, G, Dahlgren, M, Kronstrand, R. An accidental fatal intoxication with methoxetamine. J Analytic Toxicol 2013;37(1):43–46.Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, CD, Scalzo, AJ, Long, C, et al. K2 and Spice abusers: a case series of clinical and laboratory findings. Paper presented at the North American Congress of Clinical Toxicology (NACCT), 21–26 September, Washington, DC, 2011.Google Scholar
Patton, AL, Chimalakonda, KC, Moran, CL, et al. K2 toxicity: fatal case of psychiatric complications following AM2201 exposure. J Forensic Sci 2013;58(6):1676–1680. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.12216Google Scholar
Reports to PHE’s Drug Alerts, March 2018.Google Scholar
Report to PHE by Manchester Local Drug Information System ‘Spice Warning,’ August 2018.Google Scholar
Shanks, KG, Behonick, GS. Death after use of the synthetic cannabinoid 5F-AMB. Forensic Sci Int 2016;262:e21–e24.Google Scholar
Somerville, RF, Hassan, VR, Kolbe, E, et al. The identification and quantification of synthetic cannabinoids seized in New Zealand in 2017. Forensic Sci Int 2019;300:19–27.Google Scholar
Darke S, Duflou J, Farrell M, Peacock A, Lappin J. Characteristics and circumstances of synthetic cannabinoid-related death. Clin Toxicol 2019 (online). https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2019.1647344Google Scholar
Darke S, Duflou J, Farrell M, Peacock A, Lappin J. Characteristics and circumstances of synthetic cannabinoid-related death. Clin Toxicol 2019 (online). https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2019.1647344Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2016;54(1):1–13.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Fentanils and synthetic cannabinoids: driving greater complexity into the drug situation. An update from the EU Early Warning System (June 2018). Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2018.Google Scholar
Fattore, L, Fratta, W. Beyond THC: the new generation of cannabinoid designer drugs. Front Behav Neurosci 2011;5:60.Google Scholar
Seely, KA, Prather, PL, James, LP, et al. Marijuana-based drugs: innovative therapeutics or designer drugs of abuse? Mol Interv 2011;11:36–51.Google Scholar
Mills, B, Yepes, A, Nugent, K. Synthetic cannabinoids. Am J Med Sci 2015;350(1): 59–62.Google Scholar
Harris, CR, Brown, A. Synthetic cannabinoid intoxication: a case series and review. J Emerg Med 2013;44(2):360–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2012.07.061Google Scholar
Akram, H, Mokrysz, C, Curran, HV. What are the psychological effects of using synthetic cannabinoids? A systematic review. J Psychopharmacol 2019;33(3):271–283.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881119826592Google Scholar
Albertson, TE, Chenoweth, JA, Colby, DK, et al. The changing drug culture: medical and recreational marijuana. FP Essent 2016;441:11–17.Google Scholar
D’Souza, DC, Radhakrishnan, R, Sherif, M, et al. Cannabinoids and psychosis. Curr Pharm Des 2016;22(42):6380–6391.Google Scholar
Gray, R, Bressington, D, Hughes, E, et al. A systematic review of the effects of novel psychoactive substances ‘legal highs’ on people with severe mental illness. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 2016;23(5):267–281.Google Scholar
Van Amsterdam, J, Brunt, T, van den Brink, W. The adverse health effects of synthetic cannabinoids with emphasis on psychosis-like effects. J Psychopharmacol 2015;29(3): 254–263.Google Scholar
White CM., The pharmacologic and clinical effects of illicit synthetic cannabinoids. J Clin Pharmacol 2017;57(3):297–304.Google Scholar
Banister, SD, Connor, M. The chemistry and pharmacology of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists as new psychoactive substances: origins. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2018;252:165–190.  https://doi.org/10.1007/164_2018_143Google Scholar
Zaurova, M, Hoffman, RS, Vlahov, D, Manini, AF. Clinical effects of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists compared with marijuana in emergency department patients with acute drug overdose. J Med Toxicol 2016;12(4):335–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0558-4Google Scholar
Mensen VT, , Vreeker A, , Nordgren J, et al. Psychopathological symptoms associated with synthetic cannabinoid use: a comparison with natural cannabis. Psychopharmacology 2019;236:2677–2685. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-019-05238-8Google Scholar
Bassir Nia, A, Medrano, B, Perkel, C, et al. Psychiatric comorbidity associated with synthetic cannabinoid use compared to cannabis. J Psychopharmacol 2016;30(12):1321–1330.Google Scholar
Bassir Nia, A, Medrano, B, Perkel, C, et al. Psychiatric comorbidity associated with synthetic cannabinoid use compared to cannabis. J Psychopharmacol 2016;30(12):1321–1330.Google Scholar
Shalit, N, Barzilay, R, Shoval, G, et al. Characteristics of synthetic cannabinoid and cannabis users admitted to a psychiatric hospital: a comparative study. J Clin Psychiatry 2016;77(8):e989–e995. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.15m09938Google Scholar
Mathews, EM, Jeffries, E, Hsieh, C, Jones, G, Buckner, JD. Synthetic cannabinoid use among college students. Addict Behav 2019;93:219–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/jaddbeh.2019.02.009.Google Scholar
Winstock, AR, Barratt, MJ. Synthetic cannabis: a comparison of patterns of use and effect profile with natural cannabis in a large global sample. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013;131(1–3):106–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.12.011Google Scholar
Winstock, AR, Barratt, MJ. The 12-month prevalence and nature of adverse experiences resulting in emergency medical presentations associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid products. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013;28(4):390–393. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2292Google Scholar
Hoyte, CO, Jacob, J, Monte, AA, Al-Jumaan, M, Bronstein, AC, Heard, KJ. A characterization of synthetic cannabinoid exposures reported to the National Poison Data System in 2010. Ann Emerg Med 2012;60:435–438.Google Scholar
Winstock, AR, Barratt, MJ. Synthetic cannabis: a comparison of patterns of use and effect profile with natural cannabis in a large global sample. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013;131(1–3):106–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.12.011Google Scholar
Winstock, AR, Barratt, MJ. The 12-month prevalence and nature of adverse experiences resulting in emergency medical presentations associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid products. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013;28(4):390–393. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2292Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2016;54(1):1–13.Google Scholar
Cooper, ZD. Adverse effects of synthetic cannabinoids: management of acute toxicity and withdrawal. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2016;18:52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0694-11Google Scholar
Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. ‘Third Generation’ Synthetic Cannabinoids. ACMD, 2014.Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2016;54(1):1–13.Google Scholar
Karila, L, Roux, P, Rolland, B, et al. Acute and long-term effects of cannabis use: a review. Curr Pharm Des 2014;20:4112–4118.Google Scholar
Schneir, AB, Cullen, J, Ly, BT. ‘Spice’ girls: synthetic cannabinoid intoxication. J Emerg Med 2011;40:296–299.Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2016;54(1):1–13.Google Scholar
Lovett, C, Wood, DM, Dargan, PI. Pharmacology and toxicology of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. Réanimation 2015;24:527–541.Google Scholar
Cordeiro, SK, Daro, RC, Seung, H, Klein-Schwartz, W, Kim, HK. Evolution of clinical characteristics and outcomes of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist exposure in the United States: analysis of National Poison Data System data from 2010 to 2015. Addiction 2018;113:1850–1861.Google Scholar
Cordeiro, SK, Daro, RC, Seung, H, Klein-Schwartz, W, Kim, HK. Evolution of clinical characteristics and outcomes of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist exposure in the United States: analysis of National Poison Data System data from 2010 to 2015. Addiction 2018;113:1850– 1861.Google Scholar
Cordeiro, SK, Daro, RC, Seung, H, Klein-Schwartz, W, Kim, HK. Evolution of clinical characteristics and outcomes of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist exposure in the United States: analysis of National Poison Data System data from 2010 to 2015. Addiction 2018;113:1850– 1861.Google Scholar
Law, R, Schier, J, Martin, C, et al.Notes from the field: increase in reported adverse health effects related to synthetic cannabinoid use in the United States, January to May 2015. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2015;64(22):618 e619 .Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Acute kidney injury associated with synthetic cannabinoid use: multiple states, 2012. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2013;62(6):93–98.Google Scholar
Murphy, TD, Weidenbach, KN, Houten, CV, et al. Acute kidney injury associated with synthetic cannabinoid use: multiple states, 2012. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2013;62:93–98.Google Scholar
Schwartz, MD, Trecki, J, Edison, LA, Steck, AR, Arnold, JK, Gerona, RR. A common source outbreak of severe delirium associated with exposure to the novel synthetic cannabinoid ADB-PINACA. J Emerg Med 2015;48:573–580.Google Scholar
Tyndall, JA, Gerona, R, De Portu, G, et al. An outbreak of acute delirium from exposure to the synthetic cannabinoid AB-CHMINACA. Clin Toxicol 2015;53:950–956.Google Scholar
Cordeiro, SK, Daro, RC, Seung, H, Klein-Schwartz, W, Kim, HK. Evolution of clinical characteristics and outcomes of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist exposure in the United States: analysis of National Poison Data System data from 2010 to 2015. Addiction 2018;113:1850– 1861.Google Scholar
Adams, AJ, Banister, SD, Irizarry, L, Trecki, J, Schwartz, M, Gerona, R. ‘Zombie’ outbreak caused by the synthetic cannabinoid AMB-FUBINACA in New York. N Engl J Med 2017;376:235–242.Google Scholar
Abouchedid, R, Ho, JH, Hudson, S, et al. Acute toxicity associated with use of 5F-derivations of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists with analytical confirmation. J Med Toxicol 2016;12(4):396–401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0571-7Google Scholar
Ross, CH, Singh, P, Simon, EL. Hemorrhagic soft tissue upper airway obstruction from brodifacoum-contaminated synthetic cannabinoid. J Emerg Med 2019;57(1):47–50.Google Scholar
Kelkar, AH, Smith, NA, Martial, A, Moole, H, Tarantino, MD, Roberts, JC. An outbreak of synthetic cannabinoid–associated coagulopathy in Illinois. N Engl J Med 2018;379:1216–1223. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1807652Google Scholar
See for example, Hasan O, Patel AA, Siegert JJ. A new differential diagnosis: synthetic cannabinoid-associated gross hematuria. Case Rep Med 2019;2019:6327819. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6327819Google Scholar
Riley, SB, Sochat, M, Moser, K, et al. Case of brodifacoum-contaminated synthetic cannabinoid. Clin Toxicol 2019;57(2):143–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2018.1502444Google Scholar
Chan, A, Adashek, M, Kang, J, Medinab, AJ. Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy secondary to unintentional brodifacoum poisoning via synthetic marijuana. Hematol 2019;8(1):40–43.Google Scholar
Cooper ZD. Adverse effects of synthetic cannabinoids: management of acute toxicity and withdrawal. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2016;18:52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0694-1Google Scholar
Tournebize, J, Gibaja, V, Kahn, JP. Acute effects of synthetic cannabinoids: update 2015. Subst Abuse 2017;38(3):344–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2016.1219438Google Scholar
Sud, P, Gordon, M, Tortora, L, et al. Retrospective chart review of synthetic cannabinoid intoxication with toxicologic analysis. West J Emerg Med 2018;19(3):567–572. https://doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2017.12.36968Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Notes from the field: severe illness associated with reported use of synthetic marijuana – Colorado, August to September 2013. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2013;62(49):1016e1017.Google Scholar
Drenzek, C, Geller, RJ, Steck, A. Notes from the field: severe illness associated with synthetic cannabinoid use –Brunswick, Georgia, 2013. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2013;62(46):939.Google Scholar
Kasper, AM, Ridpath, AD, Arnold, JK, et al. Notes from the field: severe illness associated with reported use of synthetic cannabinoids –Mississippi, April 2015. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2015;64(39):1121–1122.Google Scholar
Law, R, Schier, J, Martin, C, et al. Notes from the field: increase in reported adverse health effects related to synthetic cannabinoid use – United States, January–May 2015. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2015;64(22):618–619.Google Scholar
Springer YP, Gerona R, Scheunemann E, et al. Increase in adverse reactions associated with use of synthetic cannabinoids – Anchorage, Alaska, 2015–2016. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2016;65:1108e1111.Google Scholar
Abouchedid, R, Hudson, S, Thurtle, N, et al. Analytical confirmation of synthetic cannabinoids in a cohort of 179 presentations with acute recreational drug toxicity to an emergency department in London, UK in the first half of 2015. Clin Toxicol 2017;55(5):338–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2017.1287373Google Scholar
Hill, SL, Najafi, J, Dunn, M, et al. Clinical toxicity following analytically confirmed use of the synthetic cannabinoids MDMBCHMICA. A report from the Identification Of Novel psychoActive substances (IONA) study. Clin Toxicol 2016;54:638–643.Google Scholar
Hill, SL, Najafi, J, Dunn, M, et al. Clinical toxicity following analytically confirmed use of the synthetic cannabinoids MDMBCHMICA. A report from the Identification Of Novel psychoActive substances (IONA) study. Clin Toxicol 2016;54:638–643.Google Scholar
Gugelmann, H, Gerona, R, Li, C, et al. ‘Crazy Monkey’ poisons man and dog: human and canine seizures due to PB-22, a novel synthetic cannabinoid. Clin Toxicol 2014;52:635–638.Google Scholar
Zaurova, M, Hoffman, RS, Vlahov, D, Manini, AF. clinical effects of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists compared with marijuana in emergency department patients with acute drug overdose. J Med Toxicol 2016;12(4):335–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0558-4Google Scholar
Sud, P, Gordon, M, Tortora, L, et al. Retrospective chart review of synthetic cannabinoid intoxication with toxicologic analysis. West J Emerg Med 2018;19(3):567–572. https://doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2017.12.36968Google Scholar
Compton, DR, Johnson, MR, Melvin, LS, Martin, BR. Pharmacological profile of a series of bicyclic cannabinoid analogs: classification as cannabimimetic agents. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1992;260(1):201–209.Google Scholar
D’Ambra, TE, Estep, KG, Bell, MR, et al. Conformationally restrained analogues of pravadoline: nanomolar potent, enantioselective, (aminoalkyl)indole agonists of the cannabinoid receptor. J Med Chem 1992;35(1):124–135.Google Scholar
Sud, P, Gordon, M, Tortora, L, et al. Retrospective chart review of synthetic cannabinoid intoxication with toxicologic analysis. West J Emerg Med 2018;19(3):567–572. https://doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2017.12.36968Google Scholar
De Brabanter, N, Deventer, K, Stove, V, Van Eenoo, P. Synthetic cannabinoids: general considerations. P Belg Roy Acad Med 2013;2:209–225.Google Scholar
Wiley, JL, Marusich, JA, Huffman, JW. Moving around the molecule: relationship between chemical structure and in vivo activity of synthetic cannabinoids. Life Sci 2014;97(1):55–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2013.09.011Google Scholar
Halberstadt, AL, Geyer, MA. Multiple receptors contribute to the behavioral effects of indoleamine hallucinogens. Neuropharmacology 2011;61(3):364–381.Google Scholar
Wells, DL, Ott, CA. The new marijuana. Ann Pharmacother 2011;45(3):414–417.Google Scholar
Yip, L, Dart, RC. Is there something more about synthetic cannabinoids? Forensic Toxicol 2014;32(2):340–341.Google Scholar
Fisar, Z. Inhibition of monoamine oxidase activity by cannabinoids. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2010;381(6):563–572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-010-0517-6Google Scholar
Bonaccorso S, , Metastasio A, , Ricciardi A, et al. Synthetic cannabinoid use in a case series of patients with psychosis presenting to acute psychiatric settings: clinical presentation and management issues. Brain Sci 2018;8:133. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8070133Google Scholar
Zarifi, C, Vyas, S. Spice-y kidney failure: a case report and systematic review of acute kidney injury attributable to the use of synthetic cannabis. Perm J 2017;21:16–160. https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/16-160Google Scholar
Tournebize, J, Gibaja, V, Kahn, JP. Acute effects of synthetic cannabinoids: update 2015. Subst Abuse 2017;38(3):344–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2016.1219438Google Scholar
Sud, P, Gordon, M, Tortora, L, et al. Retrospective chart review of synthetic cannabinoid intoxication with toxicologic analysis. West J Emerg Med 2018;19(3):567–572. https://doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2017.12.36968Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Notes from the field: severe illness associated with reported use of synthetic marijuana – Colorado, August–September 2013. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2013;62(49):1016e1017.Google Scholar
Drenzek, C, Geller, RJ, Steck, A. Notes from the field: severe illness associated with synthetic cannabinoid use – Brunswick, Georgia, 2013. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2013;62(46):939.Google Scholar
Kasper, AM, Ridpath, AD, Arnold, JK, et al. Notes from the field: severe illness associated with reported use of synthetic cannabinoids – Mississippi, April 2015. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2015;64(39):1121e1122.Google Scholar
Law, R, Schier, J, Martin, C, et al. Notes from the field: increase in reported adverse health effects related to synthetic cannabinoid use – United States, January–May 2015. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2015;64(22):618e619.Google Scholar
Springer, YP, Gerona, R, Scheunemann, E, et al. Increase in adverse reactions associated with use of synthetic cannabinoids – Anchorage, Alaska, 2015e2016. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2016;65:1108e1111.Google Scholar
Hill, SL, Najafi, J, Dunn, M, et al. Clinical toxicity following analytically confirmed use of the synthetic cannabinoids MDMBCHMICA. A report from the Identification Of Novel psychoActive substances (IONA) study. Clin Toxicol 2016;54:638–643.Google Scholar
Gugelmann, H, Gerona, R, Li, C, et al. ‘Crazy Monkey’ poisons man and dog: human and canine seizures due to PB-22, a novel synthetic cannabinoid. Clin Toxicol 2014;52:635–638.Google Scholar
Karila, L, Roux, P, Rolland, B, et al. Acute and long-term effects of cannabis use: a review. Curr Pharm Des 2014;20:4112–4118.Google Scholar
Abouchedid, R, Hudson, S, Thurtle, N, et al. Analytical confirmation of synthetic cannabinoids in a cohort of 179 presentations with acute recreational drug toxicity to an emergency department in London, UK in the first half of 2015. Clin Toxicol 2017;55(5):338–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2017.1287373Google Scholar
Schneir, AB, Cullen, J, Ly, BT . ‘Spice’ girls: synthetic cannabinoid intoxication. J Emerg Med 2011;40:296–299.Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2015;15:1–13.Google Scholar
Lovett, C, Wood, DM, Dargan, PI. Pharmacology and toxicology of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. Réanimation 2015;24:527–541.Google Scholar
McQuade, D, Hudson, S, Dargan, PI, Wood, DM. First European case of convulsions related to analytically confirmed use of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist AM-2201. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2013;69:373–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00228-012-1379-2Google Scholar
Papanti, D, Schifano, F, Botteon, G, et al. ‘Spiceophrenia’: a systematic overview of ‘spice’-related psychopathological issues and a case report. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013;28(4):379–389. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2312Google Scholar
Spaderna, M, Addy, P, D’Souza, DC. Spicing things up: synthetic cannabinoids. Psychopharmacology 2013;228(4):525–540.Google Scholar
Winstock, AR, Barratt, MJ. The 12-month prevalence and nature of adverse experiences resulting in emergency medical presentations associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid products. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013;28(4):390–393. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2292Google Scholar
Freeman, MJ, Rose, DZ, Myers, MA, Gooch, CL, Bozeman, AC, Burgin, WS. Ischemic stroke after use of the synthetic marijuana ‘spice’. Neurology 2013;81(24):2090–2093.Google Scholar
Mir, A, Obafemi, A, Young, A, Kane, C. Myocardial infarction associated with use of the synthetic cannabinoid K2. Pediatrics 2011;128(6):e1622–1627.Google Scholar
Zimmermann, US, Winkelmann, PR, Pilhatsch, M, Nees, JA, Spanagel, R, Schulz, K. Withdrawal phenomena and dependence syndrome after the consumption of ‘Spice Gold’. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2009;106(27):464–467. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2009.0464Google Scholar
Banerji, S, Deutsch, CM, Bronstein, AC. Spice ain’t so nice. Clin Toxicol 2010;48:632(abstract 137). Available at: http://informahealthcare.com/doi/pdf/10.3109/15563650.2010.493290 [last accessed 27 March 2022].Google Scholar
Every-Palmer, S. Warning: legal synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists such as JWH-018 may precipitate psychosis in vulnerable individuals. Addiction 2010;105:1959–1960.Google Scholar
Johnson, LA, Johnson, RL, Alfonzo, C. Spice: a legal marijuana equivalent. Mil Med 2011;176:718–720.Google Scholar
Benford, DM, Caplan, JP. Psychiatric sequelae of spice, K2, and synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. Psychosomatics 2011;52:295.Google Scholar
Vearrier, D, Osterhoudt, KC. A teenager with agitation: higher than she should have climbed. Pediatr Emerg Care 2010;26:462–465.Google Scholar
Donnelly MT. Health Advisory: K2 Synthetic Marijuana Use Among Teenagers and Young Adults in Missouri. Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, 5 March 2010. Available at: http://health.mo.gov /emergencies/ert/alertsadvisories/pdf/HAd3-5-2010.pdf [last accessed 27 March 2022].Google Scholar
Cohen, K, Kapitány-Fövény, M, Mama, Y, et al. The effects of synthetic cannabinoids on executive function. Psychopharmacology 2017;234(7):1121–1134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-017-4546-4Google Scholar
Theunissen, EL, Hutten, NR, Mason, NL, et al. Neurocognition and subjective experience following acute doses of the synthetic cannabinoid JWH‐018: a phase 1, placebo‐controlled, pilot study. Br J Pharmacol 2018;175(1):18–28.Google Scholar
Schneir, AB, Cullen, J, Ly, BT. ‘Spice’ girls: synthetic cannabinoid intoxication. J Emerg Med 2011;40(3):296–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2010.10.014Google Scholar
Every-Palmer, S. Synthetic cannabinoid JWH-018 and psychosis: an explorative study. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011;117:152–157.Google Scholar
Müller, H, Sperling, W, Köhrmann, M, et al. The synthetic cannabinoid Spice as a trigger for an acute exacerbation of cannabis-induced recurrent psychotic episodes. Schizophr Res 2010;118:309–310.Google Scholar
Young, AC, Schwarz, E, Medina, G, et al. Cardiotoxicity associated with the synthetic cannabinoid, K9, with laboratory confirmation. Am J Emerg Med 2012;30(7):1320.e5–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2011.05.013Google Scholar
Thomas, S, Bliss, S, Malik, M. Suicidal ideation and self-harm following K2 use. J Okla State Med Assoc 2012;105(11):430–433.Google Scholar
Pierre, JM. Cannabis, synthetic cannabinoids, and psychosis risk: what the evidence says. Curr Psychiatr 2011;10:49–58.Google Scholar
Hobbs, M, Kalk, NJ, Morrison, PD, Stone, J. Spicing it up: synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and psychosis: a systematic review. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2018;28(12):1289–1304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.10.004Google Scholar
Shafi, A, Gallagher, P, Stewart, N, Martinotti, G, Corazza, O. The risk of violence associated with novel psychoactive substance misuse in patients presenting to acute mental health services. Hum Psychopharmacol 2017;32:3.Google Scholar
Akram, H, Mokrysz, C, Curran, HV. What are the psychological effects of using synthetic cannabinoids? A systematic review. J Psychopharmacol 2019;33(3):271–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881119826592Google Scholar
Cohen, K, Weinstein, AM. Synthetic and non-synthetic cannabinoid drugs and their adverse effects: a review from a public health perspective. Front Public Health 2018;7(6):162.Google Scholar
Papanti, D, Schifano, F, Botteon, G, et al. ‘Spiceophrenia’: a systematic overview of ‘Spice’‐related psychopathological issues and a case report. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 2013;28(4):379–389.Google Scholar
Karila, L, Benyamina, A, Blecha, L, Cottencin, O, Billieux, J. The synthetic cannabinoids phenomenon. Curr Pharm Des 2016;22(42):6420–6425.Google Scholar
Cohen, K, Kapitány-Fövény, M, Mama, Y, et al. The effects of synthetic cannabinoids on executive function. Psychopharmacology 2017;234(7):1121–1134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-017-4546-4Google Scholar
Clayton, HB, Lowry, R, Ashley, C, et al. Health risk behaviors with synthetic cannabinoids versus marijuana. Pediatrics 2017;139(4):e20162675.Google Scholar
Müller, HH, Kornhuber, J, Sperling, W. The behavioral profile of spice and synthetic cannabinoids in humans. Brain Res Bull 2016;126:3–7.Google Scholar
Van Der Veer, N, Friday, J. Persistent psychosis following the use of Spice. Schizophr Res 2011;130(1):285–286.Google Scholar
Pereira, LE, Toteja, N, Khizar, A, et al.Effect of synthetic cannabinoids and natural cannabis on severity of psychotic symptoms and aggression in adolescents and young adults with psychosis in an inpatient setting. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2016;55(10):235–236.Google Scholar
Shalit, N, Barzilay, R, Shoval, G, et al. Characteristics of synthetic cannabinoid and cannabis users admitted to a psychiatric hospital: a comparative study. J Clin Psychiatry 2016;77(8):989–995.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, ST, Radhakrishnan, R, D’Souza, DC. Impact of cannabis use on the development of psychotic disorders. Curr Addict Rep 2014;1(2):115–128.Google Scholar
Brakoulias, V. Products containing synthetic cannabinoids and psychosis. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2012;46(3):281–282. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867411433974Google Scholar
Hobbs, M, Kalk, NJ, Morrison, PD, Stone, JM. Spicing it up – synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and psychosis – a systematic review. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2018;28(12):1289–1304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.10.004Google Scholar
Morgan, CJ, Schafer, G, Freeman, TP, Curran, HV. Impact of cannabidiol on the acute memory and psychotomimetic effects of smoked cannabis: naturalistic study. Br J Psychiatry 2010;197(4):285–290. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.077503Google Scholar
Hobbs, M, Kalk, NJ, Morrison, PD, Stone, JM. Spicing it up – synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and psychosis – a systematic review. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2018;28(12):1289–1304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.10.004Google Scholar
Pereira, LE, Toteja, N, Khizar, A, et al.Effect of synthetic cannabinoids and natural cannabis on severity of psychotic symptoms and aggression in adolescents and young adults with psychosis in an inpatient setting. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2016;55(10):235–236.Google Scholar
Shalit, N, Barzilay, R, Shoval, G, et al. Characteristics of synthetic cannabinoid and cannabis users admitted to a psychiatric hospital: a comparative study. J Clin Psychiatry 2016;77(8):989–995.Google Scholar
Coppola, M, Mondola, R. JWH-122 Consumption adverse effects: a case of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder five-year follow-up. J Psychoactive Drugs 2017;49(3):262–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2017.1316431Google Scholar
Martinotti, G, Santacroce, R, Pettorruso, M, et al. Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder: etiology, clinical features, and therapeutic perspectives. Brain Sci 2018;8:47. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8030047Google Scholar
Orsolini, L, Papanti, GD, De Berardis, D, et al. The ‘endless trip’ among the NPS users: psychopathology and psychopharmacology in the hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder. A systematic review. Front Psychiatry 2017;8:240. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00240Google Scholar
Lev-Ran, D, Feingold, D, Goodman, C, Lerner, AG. Brief report: comparing triggers to visual disturbances among individuals with positive versus negative experiences of hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder (HPPD) following use of LSD. Am J Addict 2017;26:568–571. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajad.12577Google Scholar
Forrester, MB, Kleinschmidt, K, Schwarz, E, Young, A. Synthetic cannabinoid exposures reported to Texas poison centers. J Addict Dis 2011;30:351–358.Google Scholar
Haden, M, Dargan, PI, Archer, JRH, et al. MDMB-CHMICA: availability, patterns of use and toxicity associated with this novel psychoactive substance. Subst Use Misuse 2017;52:223–232.Google Scholar
Westin, AA, Frost, J, Brede, WR, et al. Sudden cardiac death following use of the synthetic cannabinoid MDMB-CHMICA. J Anal Toxicol 2016;40:86–87.Google Scholar
Adamowicz, P. Fatal intoxication with synthetic cannabinoid MDMB-CHMICA. Forensic Sci Int 2016;261:e5–10.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction [Internet]. EMCDDA–Europol Joint Report on a new psychoactive substance: methyl 2-[[1-(cyclohexylmethyl)indole-3-carbonyl]amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanoate (MDMB-CHMICA), Joint Reports. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar
Hill, SL, Najafi, J, Dunn, M, et al.Clinical toxicity following analytically confirmed use of the synthetic cannabinoids MDMBCHMICA. A report from the Identification Of Novel psychoActive substances (IONA) study. Clin Toxicol 2016;54:638–643.Google Scholar
Angerer, V, Franz, F, Schwarze, B, et al. Reply to ‘Sudden cardiac death following use of the synthetic cannabinoid MDMBCHMICA’. J Anal Toxicol 2016;40:240–242.Google Scholar
Pacher, P, Steffens, S, Haskó, G, Schindler, TH, Kunos, G. Cardiovascular effects of marijuana and synthetic cannabinoids: the good, the bad, and the ugly. Nat Rev Cardiol 2018;15(3):151–166. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrcardio.2017.130Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2015;15:1–13.Google Scholar
Canning, J, Ruha, A, Pierce, R, Torrey, M, Reinhart, S. Severe GI distress after smoking JWH-018. Clin Toxicol 2010;48:618.Google Scholar
Yen, M, Berger, RE, Roberts, J, Ganetsky, M. Middle cerebral artery stroke associated with use of synthetic cannabinoid K2. Clin Toxicol 2012;50(7):673–674.Google Scholar
Gunderson, EW, Haughey, HM, Ait-Daoud, N, et al. A survey of synthetic cannabinoid consumption by current cannabis users. Subst Abus 2014;35:184–189.Google Scholar
Lapoint, J, Nelson, LS. Synthetic cannabinoids: the newest, almost illicit drug of abuse. Emerg Med 2011;43(2):26–28.Google Scholar
Ng, SK, Brust, JC, Hauser, WA, Susser, M. Illicit drug use and the risk of new-onset seizures. Am J Epidemiol 1990;132:47–57.Google Scholar
Gordon, E, Devinsky, O. Alcohol and marijuana: effects on epilepsy and use by patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia 2001;42:1266–1272.Google Scholar
Keeler, MH, Reifler, CB. Grand mal convulsions subsequent to marijuana use. Case report. Dis Nerv Syst 1967;28:474–475.Google Scholar
Schneir, A, Baumbacher, T. Convulsions as a complication of synthetic cannabinoid use. Clin Toxicol 2011;49(6):526.Google Scholar
Hoyte, CO, Jacob, J, Monte, AA, Al-Jumaan, M, Bronstein, AC, Heard, KJ. A characterization of synthetic cannabinoid exposures reported to the National Poison Data System in 2010. Ann Emerg Med 2012;60:435–438.Google Scholar
Bäckberg, M, Tworek, L, Beck, O, et al. Analytically confirmed intoxications involving MDMB-CHMICA from the STRIDA Project. J Med Toxicol 2017;13:52–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0584-2Google Scholar
Schep, LJ, Slaughter, RJ, Hudson, S, et al.Delayed seizure-like activity following analytically confirmed use of previously unreported synthetic cannabinoid analogues. Hum Exp Toxicol 2015;34:557–560.Google Scholar
Hermanns-Clausen M, Muller D, Kithinji J, et al. Acute side effects after consumption of the novel synthetic cannabinoids ABCHMINACA and MDMB-CHMICA. 36th International Congress of the European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists (EAPCCT), 24–27 May, 2016, Madrid, Spain. Clin Toxicol 2016;54:344–519 (Abstract 17).Google Scholar
Zarifi, C, Vyas, S. Spice-y kidney failure: a case report and systematic review of acute kidney injury attributable to the use of synthetic cannabis. Perm J 2017;21:16–160.Google Scholar
Seifert, SA, Brazwell, EM, Smeltzer, C, Gibb, J, Logan, BK. Seizure and acute kidney injury associated with synthetic cannabinoid use. Clin Toxicol 2013;51(7):667.Google Scholar
Kazory, A, Aiyer, R. Synthetic marijuana and acute kidney injury: an unforeseen association. Clin Kidney J 2013;6(3):330–333.Google Scholar
Bhanushali, GK, Jain, G, Fatima, H, Leisch, LJ, Thornley-Brown, D. AKI associated with synthetic cannabinoids: a case series. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2013;8(4):523–526. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.05690612Google Scholar
Coca, SG, Singanamala, S, Parikh, CR. Chronic kidney disease after kidney injury: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Kid Int 2012;81:442–448.Google Scholar
Murphy, TD, Weidenbach, KN, Houten, CV, et al. Acute kidney injury associated with synthetic cannabinoid use: multiple states, 2012. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2013;62:93–98.Google Scholar
Karass M, Chugh S, Andries G, et al. Thrombotic microangiopathy associated with synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. Stem Cell Investig 2017;4:43. https://doi.org/10.21037/sci.2017.05.05Google Scholar
Armstrong, F, McCurdy, MT, Heavner, MS. Synthetic cannabinoid-associated multiple organ failure: case series and literature review. Pharmacotherapy 2019;39(4):508–513. https://doi.org/10.1002/phar.2241Google Scholar
Westerbergh, J, Hulten, P. Novel synthetic cannabinoids, CRA13, JWH-015, JWH-081 and JWH-210 – detected in a case series. (Abstracts of the 2011 International Congress of the European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists, 24–27 May 2011, Dubrovnik, Croatia.) Clin Toxicol 2011;49(3):199.Google Scholar
Su, M, Laskowski, L, Hoffman, RS. Hyperthermia and severe rhabdomyolysis from synthetic cannabinoids. Am J Emerg Med 2016;34:121.e1–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.Ajem.2015.05.052. Epub 12 June 2015. Am J Emerg Med 2016;34(8):1690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2016.05.015Google Scholar
March, R, Guentert, P, Kloska-Kearney, E, et al. Utilization of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for pulmonary toxicity caused by inhaled synthetic cannabinoid. a harbinger of future complications associated with inhaled cannabinoid products. Int J Clin Med 2020;11:53–61. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijcm.2020.112006Google Scholar
Armstrong, F, McCurdy, MT, Heavner, MS. Synthetic cannabinoid-associated multiple organ failure: case series and literature review. Pharmacotherapy 2019;39(4):508–513.Google Scholar
Armstrong, F, McCurdy, MT, Heavner, MS. Synthetic cannabinoid-associated multiple organ failure: case series and literature review. Pharmacotherapy 2019;39(4):508–513.Google Scholar
Winstock, AR, Barratt, MJ. The 12-month prevalence and nature of adverse experiences resulting in emergency medical presentations associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid products. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013;28:390–393.Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2015;15:1–13.Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2015;15:1–13.Google Scholar
Smith, K, Flatley, J, (eds.). Drug Misuse Declared: Findings from the 2010/11 British Crime Survey. England and Wales (Home Office Statistical Bulletin). London, Home Office, 2011.Google Scholar
Abouchedid, R, Hudson, S, Thurtle, N, et al. Analytical confirmation of synthetic cannabinoids in a cohort of 179 presentations with acute recreational drug toxicity to an emergency department in London, UK in the first half of 2015. Clin Toxicol 2017;55:338–345.Google Scholar
Law, RK, Schier, J, Martin, C, Chang, A, Wolkin, A. Increase in reported adverse health effects related to synthetic cannabinoid use – United States, January–May 2015. Morb Mort Wkly Rep 2016;64(22).Google Scholar
Hermanns-Clausen, M, Kneisel, S, Szabo, B, Auwärter, V. Intoxications by synthetic cannabinoids – current trends. (Abstracts of the 2011 International Congress of the European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists, 24–27 May 2011, Dubrovnik, Croatia.) Clin Toxicol 2011;49(3).Google Scholar
Theunissen EL, Reckweg JT, Hutten NRPW, et al. Psychotomimetic symptoms after a moderate dose of a synthetic cannabinoid (JWH-018): implications for psychosis. Psychopharmacology 2021 (online). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-021-05768-0Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2015;15:1–13.Google Scholar
Glue, P, Al-Shaqsi, S, Hancock, D, Gale, C, Strong, B, Schep, L. Hospitalisation associated with use of the synthetic cannabinoid K2. NZ Med J 2013;126(1377):18–22.Google Scholar
Hobbs, M, Patel, R, Morrison, PD, Kalk, N, Stone, JM. Synthetic cannabinoid use in psychiatric patients and relationship to hospitalisation: a retrospective electronic case register study. J Psychopharmacol 2020;34(6):648–653.Google Scholar
Cordeiro SK, Daro RC, Seung H, Klein-Schwartz W, Kim HK. Evolution of clinical characteristics and outcomes of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist exposure in the United States: analysis of National Poison Data System data from 2010 to 2015. Addiction 2018;113:1850–1861.Google Scholar
Hermanns-Clausen, M, Müller, D, Kithinji, J, et al.Acute side effects after consumption of the new synthetic cannabinoids AB-CHMINACA and MDMB-CHMICA. Clin Toxicol 2018;56(6):404–411. https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650.2017.1393082Google Scholar
Cordeiro, SK, Daro, RC, Seung, H, Klein-Schwartz, W, Kim, HK. Evolution of clinical characteristics and outcomes of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist exposure in the United States: analysis of National Poison Data System data from 2010 to 2015. Addiction 2018;113:1850– 1861.Google Scholar
Cordeiro, SK, Daro, RC, Seung, H, Klein-Schwartz, W, Kim, HK. Evolution of clinical characteristics and outcomes of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist exposure in the United States: analysis of National Poison Data System data from 2010 to 2015. Addiction 2018;113:1850– 1861.Google Scholar
Cordeiro, SK, Daro, RC, Seung, H, Klein-Schwartz, W, Kim, HK. Evolution of clinical characteristics and outcomes of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist exposure in the United States: analysis of National Poison Data System data from 2010 to 2015. Addiction 2018;113:1850– 1861.Google Scholar
Schwartz, MD, Trecki, J, Edison, LA, et al. A common source outbreak of severe delirium associated with exposure to the novel synthetic cannabinoid ADB-PINACA. J Emerg Med 2015;48:573–580.Google Scholar
Tyndall, JA, Gerona, R, De Portu, G, et al. An outbreak of acute delirium from exposure to the synthetic cannabinoid AB-CHMINACA. Clin Toxicol 2015;53:950–956.Google Scholar
Bäckberg, M, Tworek, L, Beck, O, et al. Analytically confirmed intoxications involving MDMB-CHMICA from the STRIDA Project. J Med Toxicol 2017;13:52–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0584-2Google Scholar
Adamowicz P. Fatal intoxication with synthetic cannabinoid MDMB-CHMICA. Forensic Sci Int 2016;261:e5–10.Google Scholar
Angerer, V, Franz, F, Schwarze, B, Moosmann, B, Auwarter, V. Reply to ‘Sudden cardiac death following use of the synthetic cannabinoid MDMB-CHMICA’. J Anal Toxicol 2016;40:240–242.Google Scholar
Westin, AA, Frost, J, Brede, WR, et al. Sudden cardiac death following use of the synthetic cannabinoid MDMB-CHMICA. J Anal Toxicol 2016;40:86–87.Google Scholar
Abouchedid R, Thurtle N, Yamamoto T, et al. (eds.). Analytical confirmation of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) present in a cohort of presentations with acute recreational drug toxicity to an Emergency Department (ED) in London, UK. 36th International Congress of the European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists (EAPCCT), Madrid, Spain, 2016. Clin Toxicol 2016;54(4):344–519. https://doi.org/103109/1556365020161165952Google Scholar
Abouchedid, R, Ho, JH, Hudson, S, et al.Acute toxicity associated with use of 5F-derivations of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists with analytical confirmation. J Med Toxicol 2016;12(4):396–401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0571-7Google Scholar
Sobolevsky, T, Prasolov, I, Rodchenkov, G. Detection of JWH-018 metabolites in smoking mixture post-administration urine. Forensic Sci Int 2010;200:141–147.Google Scholar
Emerson, B, Durham, B, Gidden, J, Lay, JO Jr. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry of JWH-018 metabolites in urine samples with direct comparison to analytical standards. Forensic Sci Int 2013;229(1–3):1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.03.006Google Scholar
Lovett, DP, Yanes, EG, Herbelin, TW, Knoerzer, TA, Levisky, JA. Structure elucidation and identification of a common metabolite for naphthoylindole-based synthetic cannabinoids using LC-TOF and comparison to a synthetic reference standard. Forensic Sci Int 2013;226(1–3):81–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.12.012Google Scholar
Schneir, AB, Cullen, J, Ly, BT. ‘Spice’ girls: synthetic cannabinoid intoxication. J Emerg Med 2011;40(3):296–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2010.10.014Google Scholar
Coppola M, , Mondola, R. JWH-122 Consumption adverse effects: a case of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder five-year follow-up. J Psychoactive Drugs 2017;49(3):262–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2017.1316431Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2015;15:1–13.Google Scholar
Zhao A, Tan M, Maung A, Salifu M, Mallappallil M. Case rhabdomyolysis and acute kidney injury requiring dialysis as a result of concomitant use of atypical neuroleptics and synthetic cannabinoids. Rep Nephrol 2015;2015:235982. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1155/2015/235982Google Scholar
Rodgman, C, Kinzie, E, Leimbach, E. Bad mojo: use of the new marijuana substitute leads to more and more ED visits for acute psychosis. Am J Emerg Med 2011;29:232.Google Scholar
Cordeiro, SK, Daro, RC, Seung, H, Klein-Schwartz, W, Kim, HK. Evolution of clinical characteristics and outcomes of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist exposure in the United States: analysis of National Poison Data System data from 2010 to 2015. Addiction 2018;113:1850– 1861.Google Scholar
Armenian P, Darracq M, Gevorkyan J, et al. Intoxication from the novel synthetic cannabinoids AB-PINACA and ADB-PINACA: a case series and review of the literature. Neuropharmacology 2017 (online). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.017Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2015;15:1–13.Google Scholar
Castaneto, MS, Gorelick, DA, Desrosiers, NA, et al. 2014. Synthetic cannabinoids: epidemiology, pharmacodynamics, and clinical implications. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014;144:12e41.Google Scholar
Armenian P, Darracq M, Gevorkyan J, et al. Intoxication from the novel synthetic cannabinoids AB-PINACA and ADB-PINACA: a case series and review of the literature. Neuropharmacology 2017 (online). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.017Google Scholar
Armenian P, Darracq M, Gevorkyan J, et al. Intoxication from the novel synthetic cannabinoids AB-PINACA and ADB-PINACA: a case series and review of the literature. Neuropharmacology 2017 (online). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.017Google Scholar
Hermanns-Clausen, M, Kneisel, S, Szabo, B, Auwärter, V. Acute toxicity due to the confirmed consumption of synthetic cannabinoids: clinical and laboratory findings. Addiction 2013;108:534–544.Google Scholar
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL, Lenton, S. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2015;15:1–13.Google Scholar
Monte, AA, Bronstein, AC, Dahze, JC, et al. Supplementary appendix to an outbreak of exposure to a novel synthetic cannabinoid. New Engl J Med 2014;370(4):389–390. Available at: www.nejm.org/doi/suppl/10.1056/NEJMc1313655/suppl_file/nejmc1313655_appendix.pdf [last accessed 28 March 2022].Google Scholar
Bonaccorso S, Metastasio A, Ricciardi A, et al. Synthetic cannabinoid use in a case series of patients with psychosis presenting to acute psychiatric settings: clinical presentation and management issues. Brain Sci 2018;8:133. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8070133Google Scholar
Zimmermann, US, Winkelmann, PR, Pilhatsch, M, Nees, JA, Spanagel, R, Schulz, K. Withdrawal phenomena and dependence syndrome after the consumption of ‘Spice Gold’. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2009;106:464–467.Google Scholar
Atwood, BK, Huffman, J, Straiker, A, Mackie, K. JWH018, a common constituent of ‘Spice’ herbal blends, is a potent and efficacious cannabinoid CB receptor agonist. Br J Pharmacol 2010;160(3):585–593.Google Scholar
Macfarlane, V, Christie, G. Synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal: a new demand on detoxification services. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015;34:147–153.Google Scholar
Rodgman, CJ, Verrico, CD, Worthy, RB, Lewis, EE. Inpatient detoxification from a synthetic cannabinoid and control of postdetoxification cravings with naltrexone. Prim Care Companion CNS 2014;16:4.Google Scholar
Nacca, N, Vatti, D, Sullivan, R, Sud, P, Su, M, Marraffa, J. The synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal syndrome. J Addict Med 2013;7(4):296–298. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0b013e31828e1881Google Scholar
Cooper, ZD, Haney, M. Cannabis reinforcement and dependence: role of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor. Addict Biol 2008;13:188–195.Google Scholar
Macfarlane, V, Christie, G. Synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal: a new demand on detoxification services. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015;34(2):147–153.Google Scholar
Barratt, MJ, Cakic, V, Lenton, S. Patterns of synthetic cannabinoid use in Australia. Drug Alcohol Rev 2013;32(2):141–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2012.00519.xGoogle Scholar
Zimmermann, US, Winkelmann, PR, Pilhatsch, M, Nees, JA, Spanagel, R, Schulz, K. Withdrawal phenomena and dependence syndrome after the consumption of ‘Spice Gold’. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2009;106(27):464–467. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2009.0464Google Scholar
Atwood, BK, Huffman, J, Straiker, A, Mackie, K. JWH018, a common constituent of ‘Spice’ herbal blends, is a potent and efficacious cannabinoid CB receptor agonist. Br J Pharmacol 2010;160(3):585–593.Google Scholar
Van Hout, MC, Hearne, E. User experiences of development of dependence on the synthetic cannabinoids, 5f-AKB48 and 5F-PB-22, and subsequent withdrawal syndromes Int J Ment Health Addiction 2017;15: 565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-016-9650-xGoogle Scholar
Cooper, ZD. Adverse effects of synthetic cannabinoids: management of acute toxicity and withdrawal. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2016;18:52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0694-1Google Scholar
Cooper, ZD. Adverse effects of synthetic cannabinoids: management of acute toxicity and withdrawal. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2016;18:52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0694-1Google Scholar
Castaneto, MS, Gorelick, DA, Desrosiers, NA, et al.Synthetic cannabinoids: epidemiology, pharmacodynamics, and clinical implications. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014;144:12e41.Google Scholar
Macfarlane, V, Christie, G. Synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal: a new demand on detoxification services. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015;34:147–153.Google Scholar
Lin, CY, Wheelock, AM, Morin, D, et al. Toxicity and metabolism of methylnaphthalenes: comparison with naphthalene and 1-nitronaphthalene. Toxicology 2009;260(1–3):16–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2009.03.002Google Scholar
Hopkins, CY, Gilchrist, BL. A case of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome caused by synthetic cannabinoids. J Emerg Med 2013;45(4):544–546.Google Scholar
Armstrong, F, McCurdy, MT, Heavner, MS. Synthetic cannabinoid‐associated multiple organ failure: case series and literature review. Pharmacotherapy 2019;39:508–513.Google Scholar
Alhadi, S, Tiwari, A, Vohra, R, Gerona, R, Acharya, J, Bilello, K. High times, low sats: diffuse pulmonary infiltrates associated with chronic synthetic cannabinoid use. J Med Toxicol 2013;9(2):199–206.Google Scholar
Cooper, ZD, Haney, M. Cannabis reinforcement and dependence: role of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor. Addict Biol 2008;13:188–195.Google Scholar
Rodgman, CJ, Verrico, CD, Worthy, RB, Lewis, EE. Inpatient detoxification from a synthetic cannabinoid and control of postdetoxification cravings with naltrexone. Prim Care Companion CNS 2014;16:4.Google Scholar
Macfarlane, V, Christie, G. Synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal: a new demand on detoxification services. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015;34:147–153.Google Scholar
Nacca, N, Vatti, D, Sullivan, R, Sud, P, Su, M, Marraffa, J. The synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal syndrome. J Addict Med 2013;7:296–298.Google Scholar
Sweeney, B, Talebi, S, Toro, D, et al.Hyperthermia and severe rhabdomyolysis from synthetic cannabinoids. Am J Emerg Med 2016;34(1):121– e1 .Google Scholar
Oluwabusi, OO, Lobach, L, Akhtar, U, Youngman, B, Ambrosini, PJ. Synthetic cannabinoid-induced psychosis: two adolescent cases. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2012;22:393–395.Google Scholar
Ustundag MF, Ozhan IE, Yucel A, Ozcan H. Synthetic cannabis-induced mania. Case Rep Psychiatry 2015;2015:310930.Google Scholar
Alvarez, Y, Pérez-Mañá, C, Torrens, M, Farré, M. Antipsychotic drugs in cocaine dependence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Subst Abuse Treat 2013;45(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2012.12.013Google Scholar
Seeman, P. Atypical antipsychotics: mechanism of action. Can J Psychiatry 2002;47(1):27–38.Google Scholar
Macfarlane, V, Christie, G. Synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal: a new demand on detoxification services. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015;34:147–153.Google Scholar
Nacca, N, Vatti, D, Sullivan, R, Sud, P, Su, M, Marraffa, J. The synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal syndrome. J Addict Med 2013;7:296–298.Google Scholar
Rodgman, CJ, Verrico, CD, Worthy, RB, Lewis, EE. Inpatient detoxification from a synthetic cannabinoid and control of postdetoxification cravings with naltrexone. Prim Care Companion CNS 2014;16:4.Google Scholar
Hermanns-Clausen, M, Kneisel, S, Szabo, B, Auwärter, V. Acute toxicity due to the confirmed consumption of synthetic cannabinoids: clinical and laboratory findings. Addiction 2013;108:534–544.Google Scholar
Ukaigwe, A, Karmacharya, P, Donato, A. A gut gone to pot: a case of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome due to K2, a synthetic cannabinoid. Case Rep Emerg Med 2014; 2014:167098.Google Scholar
Grigg, J, Manning, V, Arunogiri, S, Lubman, DI. Synthetic cannabinoid use disorder: an update for general psychiatrists. Australas Psychiatry 2019;27(3):279–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1039856218822749Google Scholar
Macfarlane, V, Christie, G. Synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal: a new demand on detoxification services. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015;34:147–153.Google Scholar
Van Hout, MC. The dynamic landscape of novel psychoactive substance (NPS) use in Ireland: results from an expert consultation. Int J Ment Health Addict 2017;15(5):985–992.Google Scholar
Van Hout, MC, Hearne, E. User experiences of development of dependence on the synthetic cannabinoids, 5f-AKB48 and 5F-PB-22, and subsequent withdrawal syndromes. Int J Ment Health Addict 2017;15(3):565–579.Google Scholar
Grigg, J, Manning, V, Arunogiri, S, Lubman, DI. Synthetic cannabinoid use disorder: an update for general psychiatrists. Australas Psychiatry 2019;27(3):279–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1039856218822749Google Scholar
Musshoff, F, Madea, B, Kernbach-Wighton, G, et al. Driving under the influence of synthetic cannabinoids (‘Spice’): a case series. Int J Legal Med 2014;128(1):59–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-013-0864-1Google Scholar
Chase, PB. Signs of synthetic cannabinoid vs. marijuana intoxication as determined by police drug recognition experts. Clin Toxicol 2013;51(7):667.Google Scholar
Tuv, SS, Auwarter, V, Vindenes, V. Accidents and synthetic cannabinoids in blood of drivers. In: Handbook of Cannabis and Related Pathologies: Biology, Pharmacology, Diagnosis, and Treatment, pp. 848–1990. Abingdon, Elsevier, 2017.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×